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Encore - An Introduction to Plains/Pawnee Archaeology - A Life in Ruins Podcast - Ep 150 - Plains 11
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Happy New Year! The Archaeology Podcast Network took a break for the Holiday. So for episode 11, we are releasing an Encore episode from the A Life in Ruins Podcast.
In this episode, Carlton does another solo lecture-style episode. The subject of this lecture? An introduction to Great Plains archaeology with a focus on Pawnee archaeological ancestry. The episode starts off with very introductory history of the Pawnee in the 17th, 18th, and 19th century. Then Carlton dives into Great Plains geography and culture history. The episode ends with a focus on the ethnogenesis and the archaeological cultures that contributed to the development of Pawnee Nation.
Links:
- The Archaeology of the North American Great Plains by Douglas B. Bamforth (2021)
- Archaeology on the Great Plains Edited by W. Raymond Wood (1998)
- Carlton's KU Anthropology Faculty Bio
Transcripts
- For rough transcripts of this episode, go to: https://www.archpodnet.com/great-plains-archaeology/11
Contact:
- Instagram: @pawnee_archaeologist
- Email: greatplainsarchpodcast@gmail.com
Affiliates
Recommended
Transcript
Introduction to the Podcast
00:00:01
Speaker
You're listening to the Archaeology Podcast Network. You're listening to the Great Plains Archaeology Podcast. Join me as we uncover the rich histories of North America's Great Plains, exploring the latest archaeological discoveries and past cultures that shaped this storied region. Welcome to the podcast.
00:00:22
Speaker
Hey, everyone. Welcome to Episode 11 of the Great Plains Archaeology Podcast. I'm your host, Dr. Carlton Shill, Chief Gover, and I'm thrilled to have you join me on this exciting journey through the rich and fascinating histories of North America's Great Plains.
Encore Episode & Technical Challenges
00:00:35
Speaker
So today we have an encore episode from A Life in Ruins podcast, episode 150. It's like Pawnee, Plains Intro to Archaeology. It's an hour long episode from back in the day. It's just solo, but it's pertinent to the new Great Plains Archaeology podcast.
00:00:52
Speaker
So the purpose of the Encore episode today is that the arc podnet, we took a break over the holiday this season. um High recording equipment got snowed in here in Kansas during our ridiculous blizzard. And so we're just going to do an Encore episode. We'll be right back to the regular scheduled programming. So we'll have a fresh episode ready for everybody on January 23rd.
Listener Feedback & Content Adjustments
00:01:12
Speaker
So for now enjoyed this episode from the old life rooms podcast hope you guys enjoy it i apologize for my heavy breathing in that episode i as you guys probably tell from this podcast i talk to him out of breath and have to take a deep breath to start again because i love the topic i'm working on it to make it i find it hard to listen to some of those old episodes myself so i apologize but in the meantime enjoy the episode and i will see you guys in two weeks
00:01:43
Speaker
Welcome to Life Ruins Podcast, where we investigate the careers and ruins of those living life ruins. I'm your host, Carlton Gover, and today we are, yeah well, today you guys are in store for another lecture by me, Professor Carlton Fieldsheep Gover. The last time I did this talk, which was on pre-club as club as people in the Americas and megaphone extinction. I asked listeners just like you if you'd like more forms of these episodes every once in a while. We got surprising um a surprising amount of feedback requesting more of these lectures, but you know just every now and then we don't need the show to just be me. We all love David and Connor and we like the style format. so Here today, we're going to do just another lecture by me.
Passion for Pawnee History
00:02:29
Speaker
and I really enjoy these kinds of lectures because one, it allows me the opportunity to talk about topics that I'm really passionate about in an academic context. and Also, just because like I'm here at Indiana University, I only have a 1-1 teaching load, so I don't always get to teach topics that I want to. so like Right now, I'm teaching a science communication course.
00:02:46
Speaker
So I'm not really talking about archaeology, and you know in the fall I'm teaching an introduction to archaeology course, which is my bread and butter. However, I very much enjoy talking about like my specific research and what I'm working on.
00:03:02
Speaker
And so with that, what I thought today I'd like to talk to you guys about is Pawnee history and as it relates to the archaeological records.
Pawnee Historical Overview
00:03:11
Speaker
So really doing a deep dive into deep time history of of the Pawnee. And so with that, and this is really when we talk about Pawnee history.
00:03:21
Speaker
um It's also the history of like many great plains, indigenous nations, and the history of people within the great plains themselves. So it's just kind of this broad topic. We're going to start this episode off real quick. We're going to go through the contemporary Pawnee Nation, really looking back at the past 200 years of Pawnee history to set this stage. Then we're going to go into the geographic and climatic and chronological, you know, background of the Great Plains and then start going through specific archaeological cultures, transitions in human behavior and cultural adaptation to an environment um that then lead up into this, you know, 18th, 19th century
00:04:11
Speaker
time period of European and Great Plains contact. So with that, just some just some background, right? So you guys all know at this point that I'm myself a tribal citizen of the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma. if if you If you're just tuning in, and that might be new to you, but for those longtime listeners, you guys have heard me talk about this a number of times. And so, who are the Pawnee exactly? Well,
00:04:36
Speaker
The Pawnee Nation today, the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma is our official title. Now we're not originally from Oklahoma. That is very much a 20th century kind of thing. we We picked up that of Oklahoma as we were on the reservation in Oklahoma like many other tribal groups in the late 19th century when we were you know forcefully relocated to what was then Indian territory. But the Pawnee Nation itself is a confederation between four different groups. yeah And so within these four groups, they're they're basically it's a confederation of four band bands is what we call them. Now, however, when we talk about bands, it's not the same as, you know, element service and solids, bands, tribes, chiefdom states. And so it's not that same kind of
00:05:31
Speaker
cultural makeup in which, like, these bands I'm about to talk to you about are the same kind of societies that are talked about in cultural evolution. No. So these four bands, there we have the Skidi, Kitka Haki, Pitta Hawi Datta, and the Chawi. Now, in translated, Skidi means wolf band. It's the wolf, wolf tribe, wolf group.
00:05:56
Speaker
Kekahaki means little earth lodge village. Pitahawidata means man going downstream. And Chawi means like to beg for, to beg, or to ask for. That's kind of the translation. We're not quite sure where where that comes from. So those are the actual names. Now in the literature, you'll sometimes see them as like, like they'll they'll translate Skidi, Kekahaki, Pitahawidata, Chawi into what the French called us. So they'll be like, oh, well, the these are the Republican Pawnees, these are the Grand Pawnees, these are the Topaj, these are the Loop Pawnees. So people get those translations confused, like, oh, that's what they mean. It's like, no, that's what the French called us because the earliest European, one of the earliest European powers that we had a relationship with were the French out of, you know, then French Canada.
00:06:45
Speaker
so That's where that kind of comes in. It's really interesting when I look at the you know like the academic publication, peer-reviewed scholastic sources. and Even like a year ago, I saw a professor publish something like, these are the translations and these are the French translations. and They were just wrong and I had to reach out to him like, that's not what these mean. Do your research. so Even out of these four bands, there's actually like really two major groups. The Kickahawkis, Pittahawidatas, and the Chowies. These are what we call the South Van Pawnees. These three bands each in time had their own town, maybe two towns. So the the South Van's at the very minimum had three towns and at the very maximum had six towns, right? The Skidi on the other hand, which is what I am, represent, Sometimes called the North Band. Now the Skidi is actually a federation of 13 clans. And these clans also had their own town. So there was at minimum 13 towns that were, you know, quote unquote, Skidi.
00:07:47
Speaker
So, larger than the other other groups combined. And so, that's kind of like geopolitically, they're different, right? You have the Kikake, Batawi, Dachawi, they're smaller. There's also some cultural differences between the South Bands and the Skidi that we'll we'll talk about as we get to the archaeological record and what sets this up. But they speak the same language, like we all speak Pawnee.
00:08:07
Speaker
Skeety have a dialect change, a dialect difference, and it's it's nothing severe. If you read like Doug Parks' work, I'm not a linguistic anthropologist, but the more that I learned the language and work with our guys that have like, you know, you guys have heard Zach and Taylor on the podcast before, and how they talk about the differences between North band and South band.
00:08:26
Speaker
It's like a vowel change, how you enunciate like one specific vowel, but all you have to do is switch it out. like It's really not a big language difference, or I wouldn't even call it, it might be like a ah dialect, I guess, but from my understanding, it's like how you pronounce pecan, like do you so pronounce it pecan or pecan? And that's really how I was a layman would describe that dialect change, it's one vowel.
00:08:51
Speaker
So, regionally, why are they called, why the Kikake, Pittahawee Dottas, and Chawee's called the South Bands? Well, in our homeland in Nebraska and Kansas, that's our core town area. That's where our permanent towns resided. But our our geographic range would traditionally so but spread from the Missouri River in eastern Nebraska, northeastern Kansas,
00:09:17
Speaker
all the way into the Colorado Front Range and wy and Wyoming Front Range. In western Nebraska, western Kansas, eastern Colorado, eastern Wyoming, those were our hunting grounds. But that was part of our, not only our our geographic range, but also our cultural geography. So we have geographic names for many locations in the west, including Pikes Peak, Garden of the Gods, and Colorado Springs, places in Wyoming. like That's part of our cultural geography. We have of a big time depth there.
00:09:46
Speaker
The Skeetie, our towns were spread up specifically along the Loop River in central Nebraska. So like the Skeeties are like central Nebraska through and through. Where the other bands are kind of like eastern Nebraska, eastern Kansas, northern Kansas, central Kansas, and they kind of have, each band has kind of their own geographic area in particular. And the south bands are more culturally similar. Pawnees have different rituals than the than the South Band do, but they all took part in them. Like there's some definitely evidence of um when the Skides would hold their Morningstar sacrifice, cultural leaders and political leaders from the South Band towns would would come for these events, right? Our closest
00:10:32
Speaker
kin, I should say, like tribes, nations that are closest to us culturally, linguistically, are the Arikara to the north of us, and then the Wichita to the south. And the Wichita today, the Wichita affiliated tribes, they're really a a confederation of multiple tribes, and then under the banner of Wichita. The South Bands had a much closer relationship with the Wichita's, right, because they're right next door to each other, like the Wichita Their cultural geographies like southern Kansas all the way down to southeastern Texas. Whereas the Skitties, we had a close relationship with the Ericora. Why? Well, the Ericora originally were in southern South Dakota right above us, right? So there was a time period, a history in the Great Plains in which Caddo and speakers, Caddo and being the language group that are Ericora Pawnee, in which it all fall under in addition to the Caddo proper. The Caddo are in a separate linguistic branch all on their own. You know, that's a cultural geography, linguistic geography that was really the entirety of the Great Plains from southern Texas all the way up into South Dakota, from the mountain ranges all the way to the Missouri River and parts of the Mississippi. So the Great Plains used to be very much cattle and ancestral Pawnees, Rickras, and Wichita's. That was ours for a very long time, really up until the 15th, 16th centuries.
00:11:51
Speaker
Okay. And I keep using the word towns. And the reason why is I hate the word villages. And if you really look geopolitically
Pawnee Settlements & Terminology
00:11:57
Speaker
and at the archeological record, even the historical documentation of the settlements that Pawnee's had, we're talking about like several dozen earth lodges, which was what we stayed in, which held up to like two dozen people each up to like hundreds of earth lodges. These were towns populations that exceeded 5,000 people regularly, you know, and there were meeting places, there were ceremonial spaces, like these were planned developments, like these weren't just random mud huts that were just strewn about the landscape. These were planned settlements, so okay, that had locations for religious and political leaders. So keeping that in mind, that's why I use the word towns, villages, is just kind of come across as like really demeaning, in my opinion.
00:12:45
Speaker
And so what are the Pawnees really known for? So we were we were farmers first and foremost. So corns, beans and squash, three sisters agriculture was our bread and butter. However, on the Great Plains, you also have to supplement farming with bison hunting. So we were also biannual bison hunters.
00:13:03
Speaker
meaning we would plant crops in the spring in our towns. Then in the summer, we'd go on bison hunts while the crops were growing. So we'd go to the western part of our of our homeland and hunt bison. Summer bison are really good for one meat, like a lot of protein, but then also their hides are thinner. So they're really, those hides at that time are are better for clothing and teepees. Then we'd come back to our towns in the fall for harvest.
00:13:33
Speaker
And while we're we're harvesting, the earth lodges have a dual purpose in which not only are we like using them to live in, but actually you can turn them into like smokers as well. like You can do a lot inside an earth lodge. So we'd also like smoke and cure meat inside of our earth lodges. We could cover up the top, smoke holes, smoke them. And also when you smoke an earth lodge, that way, not only are the smoking of meats and processing the hides, but you're also fumigating the earth lodges of rodents and and so insects. And also that process helps to pack the interior clay linings of of the earth lodges themselves and also hardens the wood and the beams and cures a lot of that stuff. So it has this really interesting several purposes. Then after harvest and storage, we'd go out on winter bison hunts. and During the winter bison hunts, you know the bison, they're they're a little scraggly at this time, but we're still processing meat, but winter bison in particular, their hides are really thick and they're really good for blankets.
00:14:30
Speaker
These are much more durable and tough hides, so you can think of like the summer bison hides are much better for clothing. um They're much thinner, better for teepees, like I said. Winter bison hide, those are your blankets. that's You get those, those are the thick guys. they're They're really hard to sew and work with because they're so much thicker, so they're they're used for much more like robust forms of cultural material.
00:14:52
Speaker
We come into contact with the Spanish a couple of times, one like in in the late or like, yeah, early to mid 16th century with the Spanish, but then the French start coming in in the 1600s as well. And we developed trading relationships with the French. And and so the French kind of get this monopoly or the monopoly is the wrong word, but they developed some really good relationships with the Missouri River tribes. And at that point in the 1600s, the Ponca and Omaha and the Kansa have come in along the Missouri River in Eastern Nebraska and Kansas, relatively peaceful with us. You know, in the archaeological record, ancestral Pawnees and Ponca's and Omaha's got along. did we have We have a really deep history with them. And the Ponca's and Omaha's, they're they're really just one nation, each with their own town. Basically you had the Ponca town and the Omaha town, same people, but they got different designations for whatever reason. That's the U.S. government. Kansas, we're a little bit more wily, but whatever. It's relatively peaceful time. And so what the French are doing
00:15:50
Speaker
They're trading European goods with the Missouri River tribes, and they're looking for captives. They're looking for slaves, but we our version of indigenous slavery is much different than European chattel slavery. So indigenous slavery is much more captive-taking, indentured servitude. It's not the chattel slavery of Europe and the United States. So the Pawnees and the Missouri River tribes are going out to the southwest, which are under Spanish influence. So really the Hickory Apaches, the Lipan Apaches, Pueblos, Muscalero Apaches, we're going and raiding them in the southwest in southeastern Colorado, New Mexico, western Texas, and we're taking captives and bringing them back to the
Pawnee Captives & Land Acknowledgments
00:16:29
Speaker
French. And vice versa, the Spanish are having the Apaches and Pueblos cross the plains to attack Missouri River tribes and get captives and bring them back. So there's actually like a Pawnee People get really not concerned, but they're curious about why do the Pawnees and some of these Missouri River tribes, when it comes to repatriations in New Mexico or land acknowledgments in New Mexico, they're like, why do we have to acknowledge like the Pawnees, Omaha's, Kanza? And it's because out of this form of slavery, Pawnee captives were taken back to New Mexico and forced to work on some of these villas. And so there are ancestral Pawnees that that got stuck in New Mexico. It's like a really fascinating topic.
00:17:10
Speaker
And in my opinion, Pawnee, there's ah a famous Viasour expedition in which Viasour, who's a Spanish conquistador, a bunch of conquistors and Pueblos went out to try to stop the French and the Missouri River and they get caught in Nebraska by, ah or in the central plains by Pawnees and Oto's. And we absolutely annihilate the Viasour expedition.
00:17:31
Speaker
And every time the Spanish try to get to the Missouri River, they run into Pawnees and get annihilated fundamentally. The Spanish did do so good with us. um They tried. They tried. And really, the Pawnees, we started developing treaties with the United States in the early 19th century. So 1816, 1818, 1819, a bunch of treaties are signed, including one of my ancestors signed a treaty in 1818, on June 18th, my birthday.
Pawnee Alliances & Relocation
00:17:55
Speaker
basically declaring peace with the United States. We never went to war with the United States at any point in time. We were really, really good allies to the United States. And it's through that ally ship that when the United States provoked war and violated their treaties with the Lakotas, Cheyennes, and Arapahos after, you know, really one of the big kickoff powder keg events was um the Sand Creek Massacre in Colorado.
00:18:20
Speaker
the United States Calvary could not defeat the Lakotas, Cheyennes, and Arapahos. They just could not. And so they enlisted a battalion of Pawnee Scouts to help them because of the Lakotas. I hate using the word traditional enemy, like we talked about that today, but prior really to you know European Western expansion, the United States Western expansion, when they were disrupting these globe these long held thousands of years old market economies and trade networks,
00:18:48
Speaker
And annihilating bison herds and which resource on the plains are getting scarce and the tribes, it becomes like every tribe for themselves because they can just get everything from the United States. Pawnees and Lakotas especially went to war. Same with their Comanches. Now there is apparently a Lakota group that was always chill with the Pawnees. I think it was the pools maybe, but there is a a ah band of Lakotas that the Pawnees were really chill with.
00:19:11
Speaker
so The United States government basically hired 200 Pawnee Indians to serve as scouts for the U.S. Calvary. Through our scouting, we participated in these battles. you know The Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapahoe were put on the reservations.
00:19:25
Speaker
And that doesn't happen without the Pawnees. And there's other Indians who have to take part, but our tribe had the largest amount that were enlisted. and And ultimately, even though we did all this work for the United States and we're allied with them, they still took our land in Nebraska and we you know we moved to Northern Oklahoma.
00:19:42
Speaker
part of Oklahoma. that is actually and In the archaeological record, there are ancestral Pawnees you know and Catalans that live there. and and I've heard this story in which, why did the Pawnee choose to put their reservation Oklahoma in that part of Oklahoma? It's because they're like, oh, this used to be ours. like we We know this place. This is this is actually part of Pawnee land.
00:20:01
Speaker
So, there's this, like, it's part of our further southern extreme is where our current reservation's at. And actually, our reservation wasn't given to us. we We bought that property from a different tribe. So, we actually purchased land from a different tribe's reservation. So, it it should have been ours. And the Dawes Act was illegal for many different reasons, but, you know, the allotting of the Polynesian reservation.
00:20:24
Speaker
in Oklahoma and all that was is super illegal because actually the United States and owned it. It wasn't federal territory. So with that, and that's a brief, you know, rundown upon a history in the 18th, 19th century. um The next section, we're going to start talking about the geography of the Great Plains. So stay tuned.
00:20:43
Speaker
And we're back to Life and Roads podcast. Still me here just talking about Pawnee history and archeology. And for this segment, we're going to dive into Plains culture history, as well as the the geography of the Great Plains. So the Great Plains region is the largest region in the United States.
Great Plains Archaeology Focus Areas
00:21:02
Speaker
and also has the least amount of professional, or not professional, but like academic archaeologists. so There are plenty of CRM firms doing amazing work across the plains, but in terms of like academics who are focused on research in the plains, there's very few. I don't really think there is a department at the moment that is completely focused.
00:21:25
Speaker
On the Great Plains, usually like Oklahoma, Boulder, Indiana, now again with me, Kansas, not even Nebraska, but these these departments all have like maybe one or two. Great Plains archaeologists, I think OU, Oklahoma University has has the most at the moment.
00:21:42
Speaker
So, there isn't really a dedicated department. I guess Wyoming could be considered a great plains school, you know, but they're focusing really in the northwestern plains, kind of great basiny rocky mountain though, so they're they're really focused on Kind of the Western periphery of the plains if it could be called that but it you know like the pearl and hell gap are definitely within the Great Plains and technically All rock shelter is is too. um So what what do I mean by Northeastern Plains and Northwestern Plains Well, let's start with the Southern Plains. The Southern Plains is Oklahoma to the north down to southeastern Texas and then to the east just across the Arkansas border into the west right at the ah
00:22:25
Speaker
right up right to the mountains. The central plains where I work, that is all of Nebraska, Kansas, eastern Wyoming, eastern Colorado, and western Iowa and Missouri, so right along that Missouri River Basin. The northeastern plains is directly north of that. That's all of South Dakota, all north of all north of Dakota, and southern Manitoba and southeastern Saskatchewan and Canada.
00:22:47
Speaker
The Northwestern Plains is rapidly you know these these is really, it's kind of like a triangle area. So it's from the Rocky Mountains, the Eastern Front Range of the Rocky Mountains in Southern Alberta, all the way down into ah Montana, Wyoming. And its Eastern edge is the Wyoming- Montana border. And it also encompasses Saskatchewan and Alberta, so like the Great Plains region there. Then there's another subcategory. This would be the um Missouri River. So that's basically South Dakota, North Dakota, and Nebraska along the Missouri River. those That's kind of like a Missouri River sub-region. That's where you find most of the Great Plains towns. So Omaha's, Mandan's, Hidatsa's, Ponca's, Pawnee's, Rickra's, That's kind of the main corridor. That's the large population aggregates along the Missouri River. know They need that water to sustain their maize-based economies.
00:23:47
Speaker
So, those are kind of like the general geographic divisions of the Great Plains, right? but There's three kinds of biome areas of the Great Plains. You have Eastern, Middle, and Western Great Plains prairie. So, the eastern part of the Great Plains is is along the Missouri River. This is your your tall grass prairie area.
00:24:06
Speaker
Then in the central part is your mid-grass prairie area. And then the western extents are, you guessed it, the short grass prairie. So the further west you go, the less dense the vegetation becomes, much closer to the ground. So basically the further you get away from the Missouri River, the more arid the plains become. So I mean, let's just think of like here on the Missouri River and Omaha, Nebraska, and others. One of them has many trees back then, but so much more like a lush and green environment. As you get to like Eastern Colorado, it gets to much more you know prairie grasses, stances, wo wolves, kinds of you know biomes. Now, when it comes to the culture history you know of the entirety of the Great Plains, now there is going to be some variation here, but when it comes to the Great Plains, we have five primary
00:24:59
Speaker
chronological periods.
Chronological & Cultural Periods
00:25:01
Speaker
You have your you have your archaic, your woodland, plains village, and then last you have contact slash colonial. You know like in the southwest you get your paleoindian archaic, you get into your basket maker, then your pueblo periods, and then contact colonial in the southeast.
00:25:17
Speaker
every paleo and then archaic, woodland, then you get to your Mississippian, and then you get to contact colonial. We don't have those on the plains. Our versions of that you know that, those much more stratified communities, the large populations, that is very much typified by our plains village period, which I would argue should probably be changed like plains town.
00:25:39
Speaker
Paleo-Indian Archaic, those are going to be the North American equivalents of the Paleolithic period in Europe. The Woodland period, that's your Mesolithic. And then your Plains village, that's your Neolithic.
00:25:57
Speaker
I prefer those terms, to be honest. I know Kansas does. I really like kind of just using that European context because it it makes it, you know, you can see the relationships, in my opinion, much easier because in intro to archaeology courses, in archaeology generally, most people know of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic. So using those terms, I feel like better contextualizes what's going on in the Great Plains. But the Paleo-Indian period, it's it really starts off with Clovis.
00:26:24
Speaker
Okay. You guys have heard me on this podcast. You guys know that I do think more investigations need to be made into the earliest migrations of the Americas, whether
Earliest Migrations & Archaeological Evidence
00:26:35
Speaker
that's just earlier Clovis occupations, or there is a different lithic technology-based culture you know That's up for debate. But there's really none of that. like We don't have anything like Monteverde, Bluefish Caves, Paisley Caves in the Great Plains. Now, there has been some work at you know quote unquote pre-clobocytes in the Great Plains and that is largely done by Dr. Steve Holman, who also published this Rudy paper that we've talked about. um And there's also, you know, sites in Texas like Debra Freakin and Galt that you've heard us talk about in this podcast. You guys know my feelings towards it. There needs to be, in my opinion, a much more robust material culture assemblage before I really buy into it. So really my opinions when it comes to the Great Plains. Clovis is probably the first one we got. um So Clovis is 13,000
00:27:27
Speaker
BCE to about 10,800 BCE and BCE means before common era. It is the equivalent of BC. The reason why I'm using before common era BCE and common era CE rather than BC and AD, that has nothing to do with the religious context. It's like, as you guys have heard on our on this podcast before, when me, David, and Connor are referencing points in time, we often will say BC, and then we'll be accidentally mixed up with BP, which stands for before present, and we just and fuck it up. Because before present and BC are different. And just for me to make sure I'm i'm consistent and that you guys don't misunderstand if I say BC, I'm saying BP, I'm just using BCE just to make it like much more like clear that I'm talking about that time period, that that extra syllable at the end. After Clovis, you get Folsom. and Folsom's from 10,800 BCE to 9,800 BCE. Then late Paleo-Indian, which is 9,800 BCE to 7,200 BCE. And so that's all in the paleoinden period. So we're still in that paleolithic timeframe. So religious stone tools at this point, these are primarily your Pleistocene components. These are people that a hunting gathering is their primary source. These are
00:28:50
Speaker
Really, as we can tell right now, these are the first indigenous explorers of the Great Plains, the founding populations. Then after the Paleo-Indian period, still within the Paleolithic, though, we have the Archaic period. The Archaic period is broken down into three subsequent periods. yeah Early, middle,
00:29:13
Speaker
and late. So the early archaic is from 7,200 BCE to 3,800 BCE. The middle is from 3,800 BCE to 1,200 BCE, and then late is from 1,200 BCE to 500 BCE. Okay, so that's that's our that's our paleolithic time period. So these are primarily hunting and gathering populations. Now, there is variation going on and in the entirety of the grid plans, right? Like from, from you know, so central Canada down to Texas, right? Where, you know, that's that's a big area. There is variation going on, especially after Folsom, the projectile point typologies, you know, they become
00:29:52
Speaker
differentiated, especially by region. so you know that This is where this term that you guys probably you heard me have talked with with David about. like David always talks about Clovis and Folsom being a culture. He's right, and there's some happenstance to that where it's like, that's the only thing we can use to identify different groups is is just based on the different kinds of projectile points they're using. Now, does that mean they if someone using a hell gap point,
00:30:20
Speaker
is a different people than a Cody point? Probably not. you know It's a style versus function thing that we talked about in episode 149.
Identifying Distinct Cultures
00:30:31
Speaker
So just keep those in mind. We talk call these cultures only because it's based on the only differentiated you know types of evidence we have. Now, whether that's that is indicative of an actual culture, and differences in culture is very much speculated. okay So just keep that in mind.
00:30:48
Speaker
So after the Archaic, and the Archaic is really occurring in the midst of the end of the Ice Age. So the Ice Age ends in the Paleoindian period, and right around 10,000 years ago, 10,000 BP. where This is when the beginning of the prairie maximum. So this is when it's like the best time in the planet to be a bison, right? So the prairie is expanding north and south, east and west. This is the age of bison. So bison r have, you know, changed You know, from bison and tiquis. So these are ancient bison. And the Pleistocene, they're about one and a half times the size of modern day bison. This is when we start saying bison, bison, modern modern bison. The herds explode and there's just bison hunting galore. This is where we see on the plains.
00:31:35
Speaker
planes ah populations, investing time and energy into bison hunting. you know We don't have horses at this point. Horses have have left the building. They've left the continent by here by this point. right They're all now in Asia doing horse things, getting ready, you know preparing themselves for the coming Mongol hordes being used as weapons of war for the next couple thousand years over in Asia and your mid-Asia, your Asia, sorry.
00:32:02
Speaker
they're on their own They're on their own path, but they will return and we'll get to that. This is when we start seeing you know bison jumps in which bison are being driven off of cliffs. Bison have really poor eyesight. Their eyes are low to the ground. They can't see very high.
00:32:17
Speaker
There's a story at head smashed in where some of the PIs that had smashed in got lost where they were above the jump and almost drove their pickup truck off of the jump because they couldn't see the edge. right so The planes is no joke. We also see bison traps, bison corrals being built, so people are really investing time repeatedly into the procurement of bison. We see some amazing bison technologies. We see some amazing bison processing strategies developing this time.
00:32:49
Speaker
So, Woodland starts at 500
Woodland Period Insights
00:32:51
Speaker
BC. yeah This is the beginning of the Mesolithic. So, these hunting and gathering groups across the plains and in the central plains, they begin to have much more of a footprint. So, they kind of have semi-permanent structures at times, but they're also dabbling in agriculture, really horticultural gardening.
00:33:08
Speaker
so This is when we start seeing the domestication of some crops, as well as maize has started to make its way out of Mexico, out of the Southwest, is moving from being a desert plant into the plains powerhouse that it becomes. and so We see gardening, small gardens, squashes, a little bit of maize, beans, goose foot, some of these American domesticates. The bow and arrow is getting introduced around this time. That really happens in the mid to late woodland period.
00:33:35
Speaker
So, throughout the course of the woodland period, early-middle-late, from 500 BC to 1000 CE or AD, we start seeing much more intensification of of horticulture, as well as the adoption of the bow and arrow.
00:33:51
Speaker
and much more of a settlement patterning footprint because it's really hard to find hunter-gatherer camps because they're so ephemeral, hard to find, right? Because these are temporary residences. you know So that's why paleo-Indian archaic archaeology, hunter-gatherer archaeology is so concerned and they investigate kill sites, especially megafauna, because they're easier to find. You guys heard me rant about this with the overkill hypothesis, right? Because that's what we have. It's ah it's a form of survivorship bias in the archaeological record. It is easier to find the kill sites, especially like you know when you when you run a couple hundred bison off of a cliff that create a giant bone pile or you kill a mammoth. That is a ah distinct and and much more identifiable
00:34:33
Speaker
evidence than three postholes that made up a tent for a cut that someone used for a couple of days, right? So you understand this, but in the woodland, we start seeing much more semi-permanent residences that are easier to find in the landscape.
00:34:50
Speaker
Then after the Plains Woodland, we get the Plains Village period. Then we're going to talk a lot about Lake Woodland and Plains Village as it relates to the Pawnee in particular. The Plains Village, this is full-blown adoption of maize agriculture. This is when we see these large settlements, these towns, these urban centers show up all along the Missouri River, thousands of people who are um farming and hunting bison out west. And this is really where we see the beginnings, the ethnogenesis of many of the plains nations that we know of today. A lot of the oral traditions and stories and archaeological footprint and the people that are interacting with the the Europeans in the 17th and 18th centuries. This is where we start seeing the basis of that. So this is the lead up, right, to the plains nations that we know of today, the the farmers, the early ones, right?
Origins of Plains Nations
00:35:43
Speaker
Why have I not mentioned Lakota, Cheyenne, and Rapaho? Well, they're not originally Plains nations. They're not from here. They're from elsewhere. And you guys have heard me around about that. And then we'll get into that a little bit more. But the Missouri River tribes, these are your true Plains Indians through and through have been there for a long time, okay? This is starting to pop off around 1,000 CE or 80. My research, which we'll talk once I get this goddamn dissertation defended. Gosh, dang dissertation defended.
00:36:11
Speaker
but'll We'll go to a whole episode on what I've discovered and a radically changed archaeology. So that's happening. And then you get contact, right? And what is the contact period? Well, that's happening at of different points, but it's really around like 1550. So we start seeing this contact or colonial period really, really popping off. Okay.
00:36:31
Speaker
So yes, that is a very brief kind of overview. I do want to say archaic. This is my start saying medicine wheels and more like forms of like religious or spiritual archeology showing up. And what we know for me, I consider like these paleo-indian archaic and early woodland components, especially paleo-indian archaic. I think that that is it. To me, that is a shared past and shared ancestry that the Pawnee, Ricker, and Wichita, the Katoan speakers share with.
00:37:01
Speaker
Mandans, Hidatsas, Oto's, and other Missouri River groups. And some in these groups in the Rocky Mountains as well. you know like Those are kind of our progenitors, right? If we think about a founding population here, they know there's multiple migrations that we know of that are happening in the Paleo-Indian before the Bering land bridge closes and gets flooded. There's definitely still groups in Alaska and Eastern Russia.
00:37:27
Speaker
Interacting, but like these paleo union groups are really kind of the the shared past. I think these shared populations that many of us have common ancestry with, they become the rest of us over time. And so paleo union archaic and early woodland, I really consider those like those are the ancestors, especially in the plains geographically, like those are all of our ancestors. We share those people. And as it comes to NAGPRA cases, and we go by like geographic boundaries of modern tribes, that's where I think authority comes in. But really, like I like to talk about paleontine archaic, because like those are kind of Pawnee's 1.0, who are kind of like Plains Indians 1.0. That's kind of like first gen, second gen Plains Indians, that as we move on through time, they start separating like a cladogram or a phylogenetic tree in which you start seeing more people. So like archaic is kind of, I'm trying to think of what to talk about. right
00:38:16
Speaker
What would be a good common ancestor to stuff? I don't know. I guess like the archaic paleo Indians are the equivalent of Plains Indians, wolves, and then the tribes that we have now in the history of now are more of like dog breeds. Maybe, I don't know. Maybe that's a stretch. David is clearly influencing me. On this next session, we're going to actually go into the Pawnee archaeology itself and really when do we see Pawnees on the landscape?
00:38:42
Speaker
And welcome back to the final segment where we explore Pawnee history and the archaeological record. I really want to bring us back to the wait late Woodland period on in the Central Plains in particular. So we're really looking at Nebraska and Kansas. There is this cultural divide in terms of pottery styles and mortuary practices between Nebraska and Kansas that I believe speak to some differences that we see later.
00:39:11
Speaker
When the Pawnee arrives, so there's kind of these echoes of the past of his previous population So, you know earlier when I talked about how projectile points are an iffy marker for you know cultures Mortuary practices are a really really substantial piece of evidence for differences in cultural. How you treat your dead is very indicative to your cultural practices and spiritual beliefs. So you kind of we have differences between between Nebraska and Kansas really, between you have cemeteries and you have ossuaries, right? So cemeteries, you can think of modern cemeteries where one person is interred. Whereas an ossuary is kind of like one place where you, a pit or a mound, where you throw a bunch of your ancestors into. Okay, so those speak to two different populations. So we see these cultural groups, they and in the central plains, they have similar
00:40:09
Speaker
There are similar cultural assemblages, archaeological material assemblages between the Missouri River and the East and then also campsites to the West. So we kind of see these hallmarks of this East to West economy of these cultural groups.
00:40:24
Speaker
in the late Woodland. right The bow has been adopted, but also kind of around this time, we have really around 1,000 AD or CE. We see two populations move in that are agriculturalists or horticulturists. We get Oneota, archaeological culture, coming in from the Great Lakes across Iowa and into northeastern Nebraska.
00:40:54
Speaker
And then we also have the Central Plains tradition, which comes, which ah we ah traditionally had thought of as coming up the Missouri River through Missouri into northeastern Kansas and into Nebraska. Now the Central Plains tradition in Oneota is a horticulturalist. They have much more permanent housing. For Central Plains traditions, the CPT houses are, you know, squarish,
00:41:19
Speaker
We're not sure what they made up. They could have been waddle and daub. They're not earth lodges yet. They're smaller. Oneodons have more of a square house structure. They have Ramsey in size pottery, so their pottery is is not as, CPT pottery is very globular. And the only aspects of pots that are decorated on central plains tradition pots are on the rim.
00:41:47
Speaker
whereas on Oneota pots, they're decorated on the shoulders. Now, Oneotans are, we believe, ancestral Dahan-speaking Suans, Dahan Suan speakers, sorry. So that's not Lakota or Dakota. These are ancestors of the IOA, of the Oto, of the Omaha, the Ponca, those groups. So they come in Nebraska for a little bit.
00:42:14
Speaker
They come in later than central plain tradition. So central plain tradition starts showing up around traditionally what we had thought. And and I'm going to use this word traditionally. and I'm not going to really go into it because this is all of my dissertation research is reconfiguring these. But for the sake of like the story, regardless, central plain tradition shows up first.
00:42:33
Speaker
into into Kansas and Nebraska, right on the historic homelands of the Pawnee. Odeodons come in for a little bit like a hundred year period and they kind of go back across the river. But what happens is is like there is some there is interaction between Odeodons and Central Plains tradition folks. And what what these people are doing also, they're not replacing the hunter-gatherers. They are trading with them, mingling with them, having kids with them. Just what we see at many places is that Central Plains hamlets
00:43:03
Speaker
are also on top of woodland woodland houses. So we can see them settling on top of the same place. So woodland people are definitely adopting this new style of life ways, this horticulturalist like really maze being squashed. Semi-permanent houses, these these hamlets are a couple different structures.
00:43:23
Speaker
probably extended family groups, then they're scattered all across Nebraska and Kansas. They're on tributaries that lead to large rivers. But then around the 1200s, we get the medieval
Medieval Global Warming Impact
00:43:34
Speaker
global warming period. and And that's when there's a huge mega drought. So think of like the Dust Bowl that happened for a couple years. It was extreme. This medieval global warming period lasted over 100 years, and it was a much more intense drought. What the central plains tradition of Woodlands people do is they react. and what they What they do in order for survival is coalesce into large towns on top of bluffs overlooking major waterways and use the floodplains for agricultural fields. This is where we see really proto-poneys and Erechiras showing up is in in terms of the archaeological record. and what we later to see as identifiably Pawnee and Rickra. So there's kind of these two threads that lead to initial coalescent variant, woodland and central plains tradition. The first initial coalescent variant occupation that we know of is Lynch. That's the site that I've been working on that we've talked about. And at Lynch, we also see Oneota pottery show up. Oneota pots that are made at Lynch and Oneota style, also we but they're central plain tradition houses, but we also see central plain tradition pots being made. But then also in the same different households, we see this hybridization where they're making a pot that both has central plain tradition aspects and Oneota aspects. And these Oneota designs and central plain tradition designs
00:44:54
Speaker
become the progenitors for later lower loop pottery. And lower loop is archeologically proto-contact Pawnee settlements. So we start seeing the vestiges of where these cultural designs start coming from is trade and interaction with Oneodons from the Northeast and definitely pop, like there's Oneodons that are staying and basically being subsumed into these larger central plains tradition folks. An initial coalesced variant, these are earth lodge towns. so you know on Bluff's Lynch is at least 6,000 people. It's over a mile long. It's occupied rather kind of contemporaneously, but there's more to be determined on that. Definitely watch out for work by Dr. Douglas Bamporth and Dr. Casey Carlson, who are working at that site and and the larger synthesis that they're doing.
00:45:37
Speaker
But, it's not like lynch happens and all the Central Plains tradition just stops. No, we see the formations of lynch, there are no transitions, and transformations of culture take time. They're not snap of the finger, boom, one archaeological culture is over, another one begins, it's a transition. So, Central Plains tradition, aspects and locations in Kansas are still going on, still going on in Nebraska.
00:45:58
Speaker
But really by 1500, the Central Plains tradition is over and now initial coalescent variant, which is ancestral to both the Pawnee and Ericora. I don't know what the Wichita are doing at this time. I think they're down in Oklahoma and southern Kansas. Their ancestors are also central plains tradition, but then they go down south and do something different. I will, you know, I forget what that is. But really we're seeing like ancestral pond in Rickora. And after initial coalescent variant, which ends around like 1500, we see the beginnings of the extended coalescent variant in South Dakota. Those are ancestral Rickora. Let me see the lower loop phase. That is ancestral ponding firmly. And then by 1600, we have contact.
Pawnee Oral Traditions & Language
00:46:44
Speaker
Now, it's important to note, in the oral traditions, and you guys have probably heard me talk about this, Pawnee oral traditions, Rickaron Wichita oral traditions, talk about shared ancestry. Many talk about coming up the Missouri River, specifically South Bend Pawnee oral traditions about migration, talk about coming up the Missouri River, whereas Skeetie oral traditions really talk about always being in Nebraska. and and The really detailed, like we were already here, then we got corn, then we had earth lodges, and then we had horses. You get those three things. the The South Bands are really talking about, we came up the Missouri River, we would plant crops along the way, and we kept marching up. so They came here with maize.
00:47:26
Speaker
So what I think we speak to is that central plain tradition population that's coming up through the Missouri River, that's really the south band that's the south band identity. they've really They're much more being contributed to by a migrating population interacting with woodland groups in Kansas. whereas Because central plain tradition happens originally you know, this is the main narrative. You start seeing the first appearances of of Central Plain Tradition in Northeastern Kansas, like really in South Bend territory. And then one of the last phases to appear ares in is what we call it Scotty phase, which is definitely in Skeetee territory. Whereas the Skeetees talk about they got corn.
00:48:14
Speaker
They were always in Nebraska. Then they got corn. They talk about getting corn from the north. and With my research, there's some things with great oasis and some other groups that had corn that seemed to appear in Nebraska and interacted with white woman populations in which they got corn. so what of What I think, you know this isn't published work, is that the Skeetie oral traditions, like these are really what becomes the Skeetie.
00:48:35
Speaker
Their history is way more tied to and their oral traditions tied to the woodland populations. Whereas the South Van Pawnees, their oral traditions are really talking to those horticulturalists coming up from the Missouri River that then interact with and mix with Kansas woodland populations. because There's vestiges in terms of material culture that we see. so and then Through this, I think like the Skeetie's adoption of of the Central Plains tradition appears according to this original analysis. Now, once again, this is going to change when we talk about my dissertation.
00:49:11
Speaker
Later on, they could they adopt central plains traditional horticulture. they're not They're introduced to it by the horticulture sound south, which we have in the South Bend Pawnees. Now, how does the language fit into all this? how does how does Our old traditions talk about meeting people that speak to each other, and I think this is really speaking to what I talked about earlier, that The Great Plains is ancestrally a Katoan-speaking area. and Even the oral traditions of the of the South Bands would talk about coming from the Missouri. Before they were at the Missouri River, they came from across Oklahoma and somewhere from the Southwest. so They were already in this Katoan region. I think they're Katoans as well, ancestral Katoan speakers that just kind of travel across the Southern Plains and end up in the Central Plains. I think I need to talk more with the tribe about this and some other groups. Because like a lot of the oral traditions that talk about this Missouri River stuff, it's it's really South Bend oral traditions that are harkening to this, whereas Skeety oral traditions, I can't express enough, they're the ones that are like, well, we've always been here. But like so but you also see remnants and vestiges of South Bend oral traditions where you can definitely tell there's hunter, the ancestral hunter and gatherers are also speaking through oral traditions. Like, no, we've always been in Kansas. As you can also see central plain tradition hunting camps and later initial coalescent hunting camps, the hunting camps that are in the west in Colorado, and Wyoming, they're on top of central plain tradition and woodland hunting camps. Now, is that ah is that an artifact of, well, those are just best places to camp? They could be, but also, I think there is knowledge being transferred, right? Like, basically, you might, you know, you're a central plantation horticulturalist, but your grandfather, you know, he was the hunter-gatherer before the days before a corn, back when they had to walk.
00:50:55
Speaker
up a mountain both ways just to kill a bison. He was telling his son and grandkids, like these are the best hunting camps. Go find the hunting camps here in Colorado, Wyoming. you know like They wouldn't have said Colorado, Wyoming. Those words haven't been invented yet. He would have showed his kids that. right so There's that transfer of knowledge. right You can think about hunters today and people today. right You guys retain knowledge from your grandparents. You also got knowledge from their grandparents. We see this.
00:51:18
Speaker
culturally, in the dishes we make, how we prepare dishes, or how we do things, that is transfer of knowledge. And so, when we see these multi-component sites of woodland, central plantation, initial coalescent variant to lower loop and extended coalescent, this march through time in which at the same sites we see this these stratified sites with these different components, that's what I think it's speaking to, is like that transfer of knowledge. You have both woodland contributions and the central plane tradition contributions. And this isn't wild, right? Like if you ask a question like what, how do you define the history of of England today or Great Britain?
Formation of Contemporary Indigenous Nations
00:51:53
Speaker
You have to talk about the histories of the Vikings, the Romans, the Celts, the Welsh, right? There's so many ancestral groups and histories that are threaded together to make the tapestry that is the United Kingdom today
00:52:10
Speaker
that is the same for indigenous communities, indigenous populations of the present in North America, that we have these contemporary tribal nations, but in the past, they're not these these static populations that march through time without change. That that the Pawnee Nation today, the Arikara Nation today, which is part of MHA and the Wichita and affiliated tribes, these contemporary nations are the product of a much more diverse and complex history than many people realize. like I hope this was to illustrate that like there's a lot going on in the Plains. What leads up to the Pawnee Nation today is coalescence of different groups from different backgrounds from different parts of the Plains coming together, sharing knowledge, developing their own identity, which then later comes the Pawnee Nation. right in the Central Plains. And then even our identity today is different because a lot of Pawnees today are come from different tribes as well. Like they have parents from different tribes and some of their culture knowledge is coming from these different groups. right So like even there's change today in terms of what we mean to be Pawnee, like you guys see me and you guys, if you've seen me in person,
00:53:19
Speaker
you know I am fair skinned with blue eyes, yet I am Pawnee, right? Like I have my CIB, my certificate of Indian blood. I engage with cultural practices and I've worked very closely with the tribe. And that's the same for most indigenous people, right? Like trying, I wanted to do this talk because i've I've been, you know, recently got back from a week long trip to Pawnee. And more recently, these past couple of years, I've had way more people reach out to me about Pawnee history, wanted to know more about Pawnee history. And it's like,
00:53:50
Speaker
man, there's it you know it's not an easy answer. There's no one straight line that I can direct someone at a time like, oh yes, this, this, this, this. it's like We need to talk about hunter-gatherers. We have to talk about the how does corn get up? and like why do and This is another fascinating topic. like Why do a lot of cultures in North America have very similar corn ceremonies and corn beliefs. And it's like, well, corn came from one place in Mexico. In order to get corn, you had to be taught how to grow it. And those people pulled you their ceremonies behind corn. And like that's kind of how that corn culture has grown. Because in order to get it, you had to be taught it. And you were taught by someone who had a corn culture. And that's kind of how we all have these very similar backgrounds and beliefs around corn, because like that's how it spread. that's It's part of the corn package. Like the, if you like your your old maize flakes box, the ingredients on the side and how to make it, you know, they're they're kind of the same ingredients list and like how you grow maize, you know, right? So I hope this has been a good lecture. I know the last one was a lot more fire and brimstone. I was like way more agitated about some things. And this one, I really just kind of want to talk about a subject that I find fascinating.
00:54:59
Speaker
And then we can do more of these. So if you guys have any other topics that you'd like me to give a lecture about, I'd be like more than happy to do that. So there's a number of references that I have used for this knowledge. I'll put them in the show notes. There is um archeology of the Great Plains. 1998, most of the Plains archaeology stuff is dated, except there's a fantastic new book, The Archaeology of the North American Great Plains by Douglas Vanforth, my mentor and dissertation advisor who is fucking waiting so long for me to finish the dissertation so he can publish some stuff. That came out in 2021, I believe. Or is it 2022? I'm sorry, Doug, if you're listening, but I know Doug doesn't listen to my podcast. He can't fucking stand me at this point. um
00:55:47
Speaker
Anyways, this came out very recently and it's not like a traditional archaeology book where it's like Paleo-Indian period. Here's everything in the Paleo-Indian. Dr. Banforth, you know, he aligns his book more as kind of like a story, you know, like peopling in the continent.
00:56:02
Speaker
ah Mounds, pots, pites, and bison, the plains woodland period, settled farmers and their neighbors. This is like a much more holistic view of the Great Plains, what's going on between regions and how we can track changes in time and like a way more synthetic or synthesis of what's happening on the Great Plains. So highly recommend that book, but also read it in conjunction with archaeology of the Great Plains or you know Kansas archaeology. Some of those more like specific archeology books that go through the taxon of archeological cultures, so you can like look at Doug's book, he'll give you the whole history of the plains, and you can go to some of these older books and kind of get a sense of where he's drawing this data from. Now, of course, it's been twenty over 20 years since 1998 when a lot of these other books were written. So there has been changes. And with that, please be sure to rate and review the podcast. You know you can rate the podcast on iTunes, Spotify, Google Play, Stitcher, and then you can leave comments for us on iTunes. So we love hearing from you guys. You can also email us at a life and ruins podcast at gmail dot.com. Anne and others have been emailing us. We absolutely love fan feedback. We really love hearing from you guys what we got right, especially what we got wrong, especially when David's wrong. We love hearing it when David's wrong, which doesn't happen very often, but it does. So yeah, no, please continue. And if you're listening to us on the ocean all shows feed, please, please, please subscribe to our show individually. When you do that, it allows us to track who is listening to our show and where from.
00:57:30
Speaker
It also helps us get sponsors and advertisers, right? So that helps us. Like we want to do more content for you guys, but we can't do that without any sort of financial income. We've been doing this for like over three years now where we still have not seen a check. So all everything, this whole podcast, all of our equipment and production is really ah done for free. And you know, the folks that are like that at archeology podcast network, Chris and Rachel,
00:57:56
Speaker
You know, anytime we get advertisers or sponsors, a portion of it goes to them to cover the cost, so helping us helps them produce our show. And the more money we make, the more money they make, and the more the better quality our show becomes. So if you support us, you support the APN, we can do much cooler things. And with that, this is Carlton. We will see you next time.
00:58:20
Speaker
Thank you for listening to the Great Plains archaeology podcast. You can follow me on Instagram at Pawnee underscore archaeologist. And you can also email me at Great Plains arc podcast at gmail dot.com. And remember, anybody can love the mountains, but it takes a soul to love the prairie. American author Willa Cather.
00:58:45
Speaker
The Archaeology Podcast Network is 10 years old this year. Our executive producer is Ashley Airy, our social media coordinator is Matilda Seabreck, and our chief editor is Rachel Rodin. The Archaeology Podcast Network was co-founded by Chris Webster and Tristan Boyle in 2014 and is part of CulturoMedia and DigTech LLC. This has been a presentation of the Archaeology Podcast Network. Visit us on the web for show notes and other podcasts at ww www.com. Contact us at chrisatarchaeologypodcastnetwork.com.