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An Introduction to Plains/Pawnee Archaeology - Ep 150
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In this episode, Carlton does another solo lecture-style episode. The subject of this lecture? An introduction to Great Plains archaeology with a focus on Pawnee archaeological ancestry. The episode starts off with very introductory history of the Pawnee in the 17th, 18th, and 19th century. Then Carlton dives into Great Plains geography and culture history. The episode ends with a focus on the ethnogenesis and the archaeological cultures that contributed to the development of Pawnee Nation.
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Transcripts
For rough transcripts of this episode go to https://www.archpodnet.com/ruins/150
Literature Recommendations
- The Archaeology of the North American Great Plains by Douglas Bamforth (2021)
- Archaeology of the Great Plains by Raymond W. Wood (1998)
- Handbook of North American Indians Volume 13 Parts 1 & 2 (2001)
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Transcript
Introduction to Life Ruins Podcast
00:00:00
Speaker
You're listening to the Archaeology Podcast Network. Welcome to Life Ruins Podcast. We're going to investigate the careers and ruins of those living life ruins. I am your
Lecture Series Announcement
00:00:13
Speaker
host, Carlton Gover, and today we are... Well, today you guys are in store for another lecture by me, Professor Carlton Fieldsheep Gover. The last time I did this talk, which was on
00:00:28
Speaker
pre-club as club as people in the Americas and megaphone extinction. I asked listeners just like you if you'd like more forms of these episodes every once in a while. We got a surprising amount of feedback requesting more of these lectures, but just every now and then we don't need the show to just be me. We all love
Passion for Teaching Archaeology
00:00:47
Speaker
David and Connor and we like the style format.
00:00:49
Speaker
So here today, we're going to do just another lecture by me. And I really enjoy these kinds of lectures because one, it allows me the opportunity to talk about topics that I'm really passionate about in an academic context. And also just because I'm here at Indiana University, I only have a 1-1 teaching load.
00:01:05
Speaker
So, I don't always get to teach topics that I want to. So, right now, I'm teaching a science communication course. So, I'm not really talking about archaeology. And in the fall, I'm teaching an introduction to archaeology course, which is my bread and butter. However, I very much enjoy talking about my specific research when I
00:01:24
Speaker
working on. And so with that, what
Pawnee History and Archaeology
00:01:27
Speaker
I thought today, I'd like to talk to you guys about is Pawnee history and as it relates to the archaeological records, so really doing a deep dive into deep time history of the Pawnee. And so with that, and this is really when we talk about Pawnee history,
00:01:46
Speaker
Um, it's also the history of like many great Plains indigenous nations and the history of people within the great Plains themselves. So it's just kind of this broad topic where we're going to start this episode off real quick.
00:02:05
Speaker
We're going to go through the contemporary Pawnee Nation, really looking back at the past 200 years of Pawnee history to set this stage. Then we're
Origins and Relocation of the Pawnee Nation
00:02:14
Speaker
going to go into the geographic and climatic and chronological background of the Great Plains and then start going through specific archaeological cultures, transitions in human behavior and cultural adaptation to environment that then lead up into this 18th, 19th century
00:02:35
Speaker
time period of European and Great Plains contact. So with that, just some background, right? So you guys all know at this point that I'm myself a tribal citizen of the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma. If you're just tuning in, that might be new to you, but for those longtime listeners, you guys have heard me talk about this a number of times. And so, who are the Pawnee exactly? Well,
00:03:00
Speaker
The Pawnee Nation today, the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma is our official title. Now we're not
Four Bands of the Pawnee
00:03:07
Speaker
originally from Oklahoma. That is very much a 20th century kind of thing. We picked up that of Oklahoma as we were on the reservation in Oklahoma like many other tribal groups in the late 19th century when we were forcefully relocated to what was then Indian territory. But the Pawnee Nation itself
00:03:29
Speaker
is a confederation between four different groups. And so within these four groups, they're basically it's a confederation of four band bands is what we call them. Now, however, when we talk about bands, it's not the same as, you know, element service and solids, bands, tribes, chiefdom states. And so it's not that same kind of
00:03:56
Speaker
cultural makeup in which like these bands I'm about to talk to you about are the same kind of societies that are talked about in cultural evolution. No. So these four bands there, we have the Skidi, Kitka Haki, Pitta Hawi Datta, and the Chawi. Now in translated, the Skidi means wolf band. It's the wolf, wolf tribe, wolf group.
00:04:20
Speaker
Kekahaki means little earth lodge village. Pitahawidata means man going downstream. And Chawi means to beg for, to beg, or to ask for. That's kind of the translation. We're not quite sure where that comes from. So those are the actual names. Now in the literature, you'll sometimes see them as like, they'll translate Skidi, Kekahaki, Pitahawidata, Chawi into what the French called us. So they'll be like, oh, well,
00:04:50
Speaker
kick-hockeys are the Republican ponies, these are the grandponies, these are the topodges, these are the loop ponies. So, people get those translations confused. They're like, oh, that's what they mean. It's like, no, that's what the French called us because one of the earliest European powers that we had a relationship with were the French out of, you know, then French Canada.
00:05:10
Speaker
So, that's where that kind of comes in. It's really interesting when I look at the academic publication, peer-reviewed scholastic sources. Even like a year ago, I saw a professor publish something like, these are the translations, and these are the French translations, and they were just wrong, and I had to reach out to him like, that's not what these mean. Do your research.
00:05:30
Speaker
Even out of these four bands, there's actually like really two major groups. The Kickahawkis, Pittahawidatas, and the Chowis, these are what we call the South Van Pawnees. These three bands each in time had their own town, maybe two towns. So at the South Van's, at the very minimum had three towns, and at the very maximum had six towns, right? The Skidi on the other hand, which is what I am, represent,
00:05:56
Speaker
sometimes called the North Band. Now the Skidi is actually a federation of
Cultural Geography of the Pawnee
00:06:01
Speaker
13 clans and these clans also had their own town. So there was at minimum 13 towns that were you know quote-unquote Skidi.
00:06:12
Speaker
So larger than the other other groups combined. And so that's kind of like geopolitically, they're different, right? You have the Kikake, Batawi, Dachawi, they're smaller. There's also some cultural differences between the South Bands and the Skeetie that we'll talk about as we get to the archaeological record and what sets this up. But they speak the same language. Like we all speak Pawnee. Skeetie have a dialect change, a dialect difference, and it's nothing severe. If you read like Doug Parks's work,
00:06:40
Speaker
I'm not a linguistic anthropologist, but the more that I learn the language and work with our guys that have, you guys have heard Zach and Taylor on the podcast before, and how they talk about the differences between North Band and South Band, it's like a vowel change, how you enunciate one specific vowel, but all you have to do is switch it out. It's really not a big language difference, or I wouldn't even call it, it might be like a dialect, I guess.
00:07:03
Speaker
But from my understanding, it's like how you pronounce pecan. Like, do you pronounce it pecan or pecan? And that's really how Iowa as a layman would describe that dialect change. It's one bell. So regionally, why are they called, why the Kikake, Pittahawee Dottas and Chawees call the South Bands? Well, in our homeland in Nebraska and Kansas, that's our core town area. That's where our permanent towns resided.
00:07:31
Speaker
But our geographic range would traditionally spread from the Missouri River in eastern Nebraska, northeastern Kansas, all the way into the Colorado Front Range and Wyoming Front Range.
00:07:47
Speaker
In western Nebraska, western Kansas, eastern Colorado, eastern Wyoming, those were our hunting grounds. That was part of not only our geographic range, but also our cultural geography. We have geographic names for many locations in the west, including Pikes Peak, Garden of the Gods, and Colorado Springs, places in Wyoming. That's part of
Pawnee Lifestyle and Early Contacts
00:08:09
Speaker
our cultural geography. We have a big time depth there.
00:08:12
Speaker
the Skeetie, our towns were spread up specifically along the Loop River in central Nebraska. So like the Skeeties are like central Nebraska through and through. Where the other bands are kind of like eastern Nebraska, eastern Kansas, northern Kansas, central Kansas, and they kind of have each band has kind of their own geographic area in particular. And the south bands are more culturally similar.
00:08:37
Speaker
Pawnees have different rituals than the South Band do, but they all took part in them. Like there's some definitely evidence of when the Skidis would hold their Morningstar sacrifice, cultural leaders and political leaders from the South Band towns would come for these events, right? Our closest
00:08:58
Speaker
kin, I should say, like tribes, nations that are closest to us culturally, linguistically, are the Arikara to the north of us, and then the Wichita to the south. And the Wichita today, the Wichita-affiliated tribes, they're really a confederation of multiple tribes, and then under the banner of Wichita. The south bands had a much closer relationship with the Wichita's, right, because they're right next door to each other, like the Wichita
00:09:22
Speaker
There are cultural geographies like southern Kansas all the way down to southeastern Texas. Whereas the Skidis, we had a close relationship with the Ericora. Why? Well, the Ericora originally were in southern South Dakota right above us, right? So there's a time period, a history in the Great Plains in which Katoan speakers, Katoan being the language group that are Ericora Pawnee, in which it all fall under, in addition to the Kato proper. The Kato are in a separate linguistic branch all on their own.
00:09:51
Speaker
You know, that's a cultural geography, linguistic geography that was really the entirety of the Great Plains from southern Texas all the way up into South Dakota, from the mountain ranges all the way to the Missouri River and parts of the Mississippi. So the Great Plains used to be very much cattle and ancestral Pawnees, Rickers and Wichita's. That was ours for a very long time, really up until the 15th, 16th centuries.
00:10:17
Speaker
Okay. And I keep using the word towns. And the reason why is I hate the word villages. And if you really look geopolitically and at the archaeological record, even the historical documentation of the settlements that Pawnee's had, we're talking about like several dozen earth lodges, which was what we stayed in, which held up to like two dozen people each up to like hundreds of earth lodges. These were towns, populations that exceeded 5,000 people regularly, you know, and there were
00:10:47
Speaker
meeting places, there were ceremonial spaces, like these were planned developments, like these weren't just random mud huts that were just strewn about the landscape. These were planned settlements, okay, that had locations for religious and political leaders. So keeping that in mind, that's why I use the word towns, villages, is just kind of come across as like really demeaning, in my opinion. And so what are
00:11:14
Speaker
the Pawnee is really known for. So, we were farmers first and foremost. So, corns, beans and squash, three sisters, agriculture was our bread and butter. However, on the Great Plains, you also have to supplement farming with bison hunting. So, we were also biannual bison hunters.
00:11:31
Speaker
meaning we would plant crops in the spring in our towns. Then in the summer, we'd go on bison hunts while the crops were growing. So we'd go to the western part of our homeland and hunt bison. Summer bison are really good for
00:11:46
Speaker
one meat, like a lot of protein, but then also their hides are thinner. So they're really, those hides at that time are better for clothing and teepees. Then we'd come back to our towns in the fall for harvest. And while we're harvesting, the earth lodges have a dual purpose in which not only are we like using them to live in, but actually you can turn them into like smokers as well. Like you can do a lot inside an earth lodge. So we'd also like smoke and cure meat inside of our earth lodges. We could cover up the top, smoke holes, smoke them.
00:12:16
Speaker
Also, when you smoke an earth lodge, that way, not only are the smoking the meats and processing the hides, but you're also fumigating the earth lodges of rodents and insects. Also, that process helps to pack the interior clay linings of the earth lodges themselves and also hardens the wood and the beams and cures a lot of that stuff. It has this really interesting to several purposes.
00:12:41
Speaker
Then after harvest and storage, we'd go out on winter bison hunts. During the winter bison hunts, the bison, they're a little scraggly at this time, but we're still processing meat, but winter bison in particular, their hides are really thick and they're really good for blankets.
00:12:57
Speaker
These are much more durable and tough hides, so you can think of the summer bison hides are much better for clothing, they're much thinner, better for teepees like I said, winter bison hide, those are your blankets. You get those, those are the thick guys. They're really hard to sew and work with because they're so much thicker, so they're used for much more robust forms of cultural material.
00:13:19
Speaker
We come into contact with the Spanish a couple of times. Early to
Pawnee Alliances and Conflicts
00:13:26
Speaker
mid 16th century with the Spanish, but then the French start coming in in the 1600s as well. We developed trading relationships with the French. The French kind of get this monopoly or the monopoly is the wrong word, but they developed some really good relationships with the Missouri River tribes. At that point in the 1600s, the Ponca and Omaha and the Kansa have come in.
00:13:45
Speaker
along the Missouri River in eastern Nebraska, Kansas, relatively peaceful with us. In the archaeological record, ancestral Pawnees and Ponkers and Omahas got along. They have a really deep history with them. In the Ponkers and Omahas, they're really just one nation, each with their own town.
00:14:03
Speaker
Basically, you have the Ponca Town and the Omaha Town, same people, but they got different designations for whatever reason. That's the US government. Canada, we're a little bit more wily, but whatever. It's relatively peaceful time. What the French are doing, they're trading European goods with the Missouri River tribes, and they're looking for captives. They're looking for slaves, but our version of indigenous slavery is much different
00:14:27
Speaker
than European chattel slavery. Indigenous slavery is much more captive-taking, indentured servitude. It's not the chattel slavery of Europe and the United States. The Pawnees and the Missouri River tribes are going out to the southwest, which are under Spanish influence. Really, the Hickory Apaches, the Lipan Apaches, Pueblos, Muscalero Apaches,
00:14:48
Speaker
We're going and raiding them in the southwest in southeastern Colorado, New Mexico, western Texas, and we're taking captives and bringing them back to the French. And vice versa, the Spanish are having the Apaches and Pueblos cross the plains to attack Missouri River tribes and get captives and bring them back. So there's actually like a Pawnee
00:15:08
Speaker
People get really not concerned, but they're curious why do the Pawnees and some of these Missouri River tribes when it comes to repatriations in New Mexico or land acknowledgments in New Mexico, they're like, why do we have to acknowledge like the Pawnees, Omahas, Kanza? And it's because out of this form of slavery, Pawnee captives were taken back to New Mexico and forced to work on some of these villas. And so there are ancestral Pawnees that got stuck in New Mexico. It's like a really fascinating topic.
00:15:38
Speaker
And in my opinion, Pawnee, there's a famous Viasour expedition in which Viasour, who's a Spanish conquistador, a bunch of conquistadors in Pueblos went out to try to stop the French and Missouri River and they get caught in Nebraska by, or in the Central Plains by Pawnees and Oto's. And we absolutely annihilate the Viasour expedition.
00:15:58
Speaker
And every time the Spanish try to get to the Missouri River, they run into Pawnees and get annihilated fundamentally. The Spanish did do so good with us. They tried. They tried. And really, the Pawnees, we started developing treaties with the United States in the early 19th century. So 1816, 1818, 1819, a bunch of treaties are signed, including one of my ancestors signed a treaty in 1818, on June 18th, my birthday.
00:16:22
Speaker
basically declaring peace with the United States. We never went to war with the United States at any point in time. We were really, really good allies to the United States. And it's through that allyship that when the United States provoked war and violated their treaties with the Lakotas, Cheyennes, and Arapahos after, you know, really one of the big kickoff powder keg events was the Sand Creek Massacre in Colorado.
00:16:48
Speaker
the United States Calvary could not defeat the Lakotas, Cheyennes and Arapahos. They just could not. And so they enlisted a battalion of Pawnee Scouts to help them because the Lakotas, I hate using the word traditional enemy, like we talked about that today, but prior really to European Western expansion, the United States Western expansion, when they were disrupting
00:17:10
Speaker
these long-held thousands of years old market economies and trade networks, and annihilating bison herds in which resources on the plains are getting scarce and the tribes, it becomes like every tribe for themselves because they can just get everything from the United States. Pawnees and Lakotas especially went to war.
00:17:27
Speaker
Same with the Comanches. Now, there is apparently a Lakota group that was always chill with the Pawnees. I think it was the Bulls, maybe, but there is a band of Lakotas that the Pawnees were really chill with. The United States government basically hired 200 Pawnee Indians to serve as scouts for the U.S. Calvary. Through our scouting, we participated in these battles. The Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho were put on the reservations.
00:17:54
Speaker
And that doesn't happen without the Pawnees. And there's other Indian Scouts that take part, but our tribe had the largest amount that were enlisted. And ultimately, even though we did all this work for the United States and we're allied with them, they still took our land in Nebraska and we moved to Northern Oklahoma.
00:18:10
Speaker
part of Oklahoma that is actually, in the archaeological record, there are ancestral Pawnees and Catawans that live there. I've heard this story in which, why did the Pawnee choose to put their reservation Oklahoma in that part of Oklahoma? It's because they're like, oh, this used to be ours. We know this place. This is actually part of Pawnee land. It's part of our further southern extreme is where our current reservation's at.
00:18:35
Speaker
And actually, our reservation
Great Plains Archaeology
00:18:36
Speaker
wasn't given to us. We bought that property from a different tribe. So we actually purchased land from a different tribe's reservation. So it should have been ours. And the Dawes Act was illegal for many different reasons, but the allotting of the Pawn Nation Reservation in Oklahoma and all that was super illegal because actually, the United States didn't own it. It wasn't federal territory. So
00:19:00
Speaker
With that, that's a brief rundown upon a history in the 18th, 19th century. The next section, we're going to start talking about the geography of the Great Plains. So stay tuned. And we're back to Life and Ruins podcast. Still me here just talking about Pawnee history and archaeology. And for this segment, we're going to dive into Plains culture history, as well as the geography of the Great Plains. So the Great Plains region is the largest region in
00:19:28
Speaker
the United States, and also has the least amount of professional or not professional, but like academic archaeologists. So there are plenty of CRM firms doing amazing work across the plains, but in terms of like academics who are focused on research in the plains, there's very few. And I don't really think there is a department at the moment that is completely focused
00:19:53
Speaker
On the Great Plains, usually Oklahoma, Boulder, Indiana, now again with me, Kansas, not even Nebraska, but these departments all have maybe one or two. Great Plains archaeologists, I think OU, Oklahoma University has the most at the moment.
00:20:10
Speaker
So there isn't really a dedicated department. I guess Wyoming could be considered a great Plains school You know, but they're focusing really in the northwestern plains kind of great basiny Rocky Mountain though, so they're really focused on
00:20:26
Speaker
Kind of the Western periphery of the plains if it could be called that but it you know like the pearl and hell gap are definitely within the Great Plains and technically All rock shelter is is too. So what I mean by Northeastern Plains and Northwestern Plains Well, let's start with the southern plains. The southern plains is Oklahoma to the north down to southeastern Texas and then to the east just across the Arkansas border into the west right at the
00:20:53
Speaker
right to the mountains. The central plains where I work, that is all of Nebraska, Kansas, eastern Wyoming, eastern Colorado, and western Iowa and Missouri. So right along that Missouri River Basin. The northeastern plains is directly north of that. That's all of South Dakota, all north of Dakota, and southern Manitoba and southeastern Saskatchewan and Canada.
00:21:15
Speaker
The Northwestern Plains is really, it's kind of like a triangle area, so it's from the Rocky Mountains, the eastern front range of the Rocky Mountains in southern Alberta, all the way down into Montana, Wyoming. And its eastern edge is the Wyoming- Montana border, and there also encompasses Saskatchewan and Alberta, so like the Great Plains region there.
00:21:39
Speaker
Then there's another subcategory. This would be the Missouri River. So, that's basically South Dakota, North Dakota, and Nebraska along the Missouri River. That's kind of like a Missouri River subregion. That's where you find most of the Great Plains towns. So, Omaha's, Mandan's, Hidatsa's, Ponca's, Pawnee's, Rickora's,
00:22:00
Speaker
which it tosses up a cent. Kanza later on, Otos, that's the main corridor. That's the large population aggregates is along the Missouri River. They need that water to sustain their maize-based economies. Those are the general geographic divisions of the Great Plains. There's three kinds of
00:22:21
Speaker
biome areas of the Great Plains. You have Eastern, Middle and Western Great Plains prairie. So the Eastern part of the Great Plains is along the Missouri River. This is your tall grass prairie area. Then in the central part is your mid grass prairie area. And then the Western extents are, you guessed it, the short grass prairie. So the further west you go, the less dense the vegetation becomes, much closer to the ground.
00:22:50
Speaker
So, basically, the further you get away from the Missouri River, the more arid the plains become. So, I mean, let's just think of, like, here on the Missouri River, in Omaha, Nebraska, you know, there's one of been as many trees back then, but it's a much more, like, lush and green environment. As you get to, like, eastern Colorado, it gets to much more, you know, prairie grasses, stances, wolves, kinds of, you know, biomes. Now, when it comes to the
00:23:15
Speaker
culture history, you know, of the entirety of the Great Plains. Now, there is going to be some variation here, but when it comes to the Great Plains, we have five primary chronological periods. You have your Paleo Indian, you have your Caic, your Woodland Plains Village, and then last you have contact slash colonial.
00:23:38
Speaker
In the Southwest, you get your paleoindian archaic. You get into your basket maker, then your Pueblo periods, and then contact colonial in the Southeast. Your paleoindian archaic, Woodland, then you get to your Mississippian, and then you get to contact colonial. We don't have those on the plains. Our versions of that, those much more stratified communities, the large populations, that is very much typified by our plains village period, which I would argue should probably be changed, like plains town.
00:24:08
Speaker
You know, Paleo-Indian
Paleo-Indian and Archaic Periods
00:24:09
Speaker
Archaic, those are going to be the North American equivalents of the Paleolithic period in Europe. The Woodland period, that's your Mesolithic. And then your Plains village, that's your Neolithic.
00:24:26
Speaker
I prefer those terms, to be honest. I know Kansas does. I really like kind of just using that European context because it makes it, you know, you can see the relationships, in my opinion, much easier because in intro to archaeology courses, in archaeology generally, most people know the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic. So using those terms, I feel like better contextualizes what's going on in the Great Plains. With the Paleo-Indian period, it really starts off with Clovis.
00:24:53
Speaker
Okay. You guys have heard me on this podcast. You guys know that I do think more investigations need to be made into the earliest migrations of the Americas, whether that's just earlier Clovis occupations or there is a different lithic technology based culture. You know, that's up for debate, but there's really none of that. Like we don't have anything like Monteverde, Bluefish Caves, Paisley Caves in the Great Plains. Now there has been some work at, you know, quote unquote pre Clovisites.
00:25:22
Speaker
in the Great Plains. And that is largely done by Dr. Steve Holman, who also published this Rudy paper that we've talked about. And there's also, you know, sites in Texas, like Depp or Freakin and Galt, that you've heard us talk about in this podcast. You guys know my feelings towards it. There needs to be, in my opinion, a much more robust material culture assemblage before I really buy into it. So really my opinions when it comes to the Great Plains.
00:25:49
Speaker
Clovis is probably the first one we got. So Clovis is 13,000 BCE to about 10,800 BCE and BCE means before common era. It is the equivalent of BC. The reason why I'm using before common era BCE and common era CE rather than
00:26:12
Speaker
BC and AD, that has nothing to do with the religious context. It's like, as you guys have heard on this podcast before, when me, David, and Connor are referencing points in time, we often will say BC, and then when we accidentally mix it up with BP, which stands for before present, and we just fuck it up, because before present and BC are different. And just for me to make sure I'm consistent and that you guys don't misunderstand if I say BC, I'm saying BP,
00:26:40
Speaker
I'm just using BCE just to make it much more clear that I'm talking about that time period, that extra syllable at the end. After Clovis, you get Folsom, and Folsom's from 10,800 BCE to 9,800 BCE. Then late Paleo-Indian, which is 9,800 BCE to 7,200 BCE.
00:27:02
Speaker
And so that's all in the paleoinden period. So we're still in that paleolithic timeframe. So religious stone tools at this point, these are
00:27:12
Speaker
primarily your Pleistocene components. These are people that a hunting gathering is their primary source. These are really, as we can tell right now, these are the first indigenous explorers of the Great Plains, the founding populations. Then after the paleo-Indian period, still within the Paleolithic though, we have the archaic period. The archaic period is broken down into three subsequent periods.
00:27:40
Speaker
early, middle, and late. So the early archaic is from 7200 BCE to 3800 BCE. The middle is from 3800 BCE to 1200 BCE, and then late is from 1200 BCE to 500 BCE.
00:27:57
Speaker
Okay. So that's our paleolithic time period. So these are primarily hunting and gathering populations. Now there is variation going on in the entirety of the Great Plains, right? Like from central Canada down to Texas, right? That's a big area. There is variation going on, especially after Folsom, the projectile point typologies, they become
00:28:22
Speaker
differentiated, especially by region. So this is where this term that you heard me have talked with David about. David always talks about Clovis and Folsom being a culture. He's right, and there is some happenstance to that, where it's like, that's the only thing we can use to identify different groups is just based on the different kinds of projectile points they're using. Now, does that mean if someone using a Hellcat point,
00:28:50
Speaker
is a different people than a Cody point? Probably not. It's a style versus function thing that we talked about in episode 149. So just keep those in mind. We call these cultures only because it's based on the only differentiated types of evidence we have. Now, whether that is indicative of an actual culture and differences in culture is very much speculated. So just keep that in mind.
00:29:19
Speaker
So after the Archaic, and the Archaic is really occurring in the midst of the end of the Ice Age. So the Ice Age ends in the Paleomandian period, you know, right around 10,000 years ago, 10,000 BP. This is when the beginning of the prairie maximum. So this is when it's like the best time in the planet to be a bison, right? So the prairie is expanding north and south, east and west. This is the age of bison. So bison are, have, you know, changed
00:29:47
Speaker
you know, from bison and tiquis. So, these are ancient bison. And the Pleistocene, they're about one and a half times the size of modern-day bison. This is when we start saying bison, bison, modern bison. The herds explode, and there's just bison hunting galore. This is where we see on the plains.
00:30:08
Speaker
populations, investing time and energy into bison hunting. We don't have horses at this point. Horses have left the building. They've left the continent by here, by this point. They're all now in Asia doing horse things, getting ready, preparing themselves for the coming Mongol hordes being used as weapons of war for the next couple thousand years over in Asia and your mid-Asia.
00:30:32
Speaker
They're on their own path, but they will return and we'll get to that. This is when we start seeing bison jumps in which bison are being driven off of cliffs. Bison have really poor eyesight. Their eyes are low to the ground. They can't see very high.
00:30:47
Speaker
There's
Woodland Period Impact
00:30:48
Speaker
a story at head smashed in where some of the PIs that had smashed in got lost where they were above the jump and almost drove their pickup truck off of the jump because they couldn't see the edge. The planes is no joke.
00:31:03
Speaker
We also see bison traps, bison corrals being built. So people are really investing time repeatedly into the procurement of bison. We see some amazing bison technologies. We see some amazing bison processing strategies developing this time.
00:31:20
Speaker
So, Woodland starts at 500 BC. This is the beginning of the Mesolithic. So, these hunting and gathering groups across the plains and in the central plains, they begin to have much more of a footprint. So, they kind of have semi-permanent structures at times, but they're also dabbling in agriculture, really horticultural gardening.
00:31:39
Speaker
This is when we start seeing the domestication of some crops, as well as maize has started to make its way out of Mexico, out of the Southwest, is moving from being a desert plant into the plains powerhouse that it becomes. We see gardening, small gardens, squashes, a little bit of maize, beans, goose foot, some of these American domesticates. The bow and arrow is getting introduced around this time. That really happens in the mid to late woodland period.
00:32:07
Speaker
Throughout the course of the woodland period, early-middle-late, from 500 BC to 1,000 CE or AD, we start seeing much more intensification of horticulture, as well as the adoption of the bow and arrow.
00:32:23
Speaker
and much more of a settlement patterning footprint. Because it's really hard to find hunter-gatherer camps because they're so ephemeral, hard to find, right? Because these are temporary residences. You know, so that's why paleo-Indian archaic archaeology, hunter-gatherer archaeology is so
00:32:39
Speaker
concerned and they investigate kill sites, especially a megafauna, because they're easier to find. You guys heard me rant about this with the overkill hypothesis, right? Because that's what we have. It's a form of survivorship bias in the archaeological record. It is easier to find the kill sites, especially like, you know, when you run a couple hundred bison off of a cliff that create a giant bone pile or you kill a mammoth, that is a distinct and much more identifiable evidence than three
00:33:09
Speaker
postholes that made up a tent that someone used for a couple days, right? So you understand this. But in the woodland, we start seeing much more semi-permanent residences that are easier to find in the landscape. Then after the Plains Woodland, we get the Plains Village period. And we're going to talk a lot about Lake Woodland and Plains Village as it relates to the Pawnee in particular.
00:33:30
Speaker
The Plains Village, this is full-blown adoption of maize agriculture. This is when we see these large settlements, these towns, these urban centers show up all along the Missouri River, thousands of people who are farming and hunting bison out west. And this is really where we see the beginnings, the ethnogenesis of many of the Plains nations that we know of today. A lot of the oral traditions and stories and archaeological footprint
00:33:57
Speaker
and the people that are interacting with the Europeans in the 17th and 18th centuries, this is where we start seeing the basis of that. So this is the lead up, right, to the Plains nations that we know of today, the farmers, the early ones, right?
00:34:14
Speaker
Why have I not mentioned Lakota, Cheyenne, and Rapaho? Well, they're not originally Plains nations. They're not from here. They're from elsewhere. And you guys have heard me around about that. And then we'll get into that a little bit more. But the Missouri River tribes, these are your true Plains Indians through and through have been there for a long time, okay? This is starting to pop off around 1000 CE or AD. My research, which we'll talk once I get this goddamn dissertation defended. Gosh, dang dissertation defended.
00:34:42
Speaker
We'll go to a whole episode on what I've discovered and I'm radically changed archaeology. So that's happening. And then you get contact, right? And what is the contact period? Well, that's happening at different points, but it's really around like 1550. So we start seeing this contact or colonial period really, really popping off. Okay.
00:35:03
Speaker
So yes, that is a very brief kind of overview. I do want to say archaic. This is when I started saying medicine wheels and more like forms of like religious or spiritual archeology showing up. And what we know for me, I consider like these paleo Indian archaic and early woodland components, especially paleo Indian archaic. I think that that is it. To me, that is a shared past.
00:35:28
Speaker
and shared ancestry that the Pawnee, Erykor and Wichita, the Katoan speakers, share with Mandans, Hidatsas, Oto's, and other Missouri River groups. And these groups in the Rocky Mountains as well. Those are kind of our progenitors, right? If we think about a founding population here, you know there's multiple migrations that we know of that are happening in the Paleo-Indian before the Bering land bridge.
00:35:52
Speaker
it closes and gets flooded. There's definitely still groups in Alaska and Eastern Russia interacting, but these paleo-Indian groups are really kind of this shared past, I think, these shared populations that many of us have common ancestry with. They become the rest of us over time. And so paleo-Indian, archaic, and early woodland, I really consider those. Those are the ancestors, especially in the plains geographically. Those are all of our ancestors. We share those people.
00:36:18
Speaker
And as it comes to NAGPRA cases, and we go by geographic boundaries of modern tribes, that's where I think authority comes in. But really, I like talking about paleontine archaic, because those are kind of Pawnee's 1.0, who are kind of like Plains Indians 1.0. That's kind of like first gen, second gen Plains Indians, that as we move on through time, they start separating a cladogram or a phylogenetic tree in which you start seeing more people. So archaic is kind of, I'm trying to think of what to talk about.
00:36:48
Speaker
What would be a good common ancestor to stuff? I don't know. I guess like the archaic paleo Indians are the equivalent of Plains Indians, wolves, and then the tribes that we have now in the history of now are more of like dog breeds. Maybe. I don't know. Maybe that's a stretch. David is clearly influencing me.
00:37:07
Speaker
On this next session, we're going to actually go into the Pawnee archaeology itself and really when do we see Pawnees on the landscape. And welcome back to the final segment where we explore Pawnee history in the archaeological record. I really want to bring us back to the late Woodland period in the Central Plains in particular. So we're really looking at Nebraska and Kansas.
00:37:28
Speaker
There is this cultural divide in terms of pottery styles and mortuary practices between Nebraska and Kansas that I believe speak to some differences that we see later when the Pawnee arrives. So there's kind of these echoes of the past of this previous population. So, you know, earlier when I talked about how projectile points are an iffy marker
00:37:54
Speaker
for cultures. Mortuary practices are a really, really substantial piece of evidence for
00:38:07
Speaker
differences in cultural. How you treat your dead is very indicative to your cultural practices and spiritual place. So we have differences between Nebraska and Kansas really, between you have cemeteries and you have ossuaries, right? So cemeteries, you can think of modern cemeteries where one person is interred, whereas an ossuary is kind of like one place where you, a pit or a mound, where you throw a bunch of your ancestors into.
00:38:34
Speaker
Okay, so those speak to two different populations. So we see these cultural groups in the central plains, they have similar cultural assemblages, archaeological material assemblages between the Missouri River and the east, and then also campsites to the west. So we kind of see these hallmarks of this east to west economy of these cultural groups.
00:38:56
Speaker
in the late Woodland, right? The bow has been adopted, but also kind of around this time, we have really around 1,000 AD or CE. We see two populations move in that are agriculturalists or horticulturalists. We get Oneota, archaeological culture, coming in from the Great Lakes, across Iowa, and into Northeastern Nebraska.
00:39:26
Speaker
And then we also have the Central Plains tradition, which comes, which we traditionally had thought of as coming up the Missouri River
00:39:36
Speaker
through Missouri into northeastern Kansas and into Nebraska. Now, the central plain tradition in Oneota is our horticulturalists. They have much more permanent housing. For central plain traditions, the CPT houses are squarish. We're not sure what they made up. They could have been waddle and daub. They're not earth lodges yet. They're smaller. Oneotans have more of a square
00:40:01
Speaker
house structure. They have ramsian sized pottery, so their pottery is not as, CPT pottery is very globular. And the only aspects of pots that are decorated on central plains tradition pots are on the rim.
00:40:20
Speaker
Whereas on Onyota pots, they're decorated on the shoulders. Now Onyotans are, we believe, ancestral Dahan-speaking Suans. Dahan Suan speakers, sorry. So that's not Lakota or Dakota. These are ancestors of the IOA, of the Oto, of the Omaha, the Ponca, those groups. So they come in Nebraska for a little bit.
00:40:47
Speaker
They come in later than central plain tradition. So central plain tradition starts showing up around traditionally what we had thought. And I'm going to use this word traditionally. I'm not going to really go into it because this is all of my dissertation research is reconfiguring these. But for the sake of the story, regardless, central plain tradition shows up first.
00:41:06
Speaker
into Kansas and Nebraska, right on the historic homelands of the Pawnee. Odeodons come in for a little bit, like a hundred year period, and they kind of go back across the river. But what happens is there is interaction between Odeodons and central plant tradition folks. And what these people are doing also, they're not replacing the hunter-gatherers. They are
00:41:29
Speaker
trading with them, mingling with them, having kids with them. Just what we see at many places is that Central Plains hamlets are also on top of woodland houses. So we can see them settling on top of the same place. So woodland people are definitely adopting this new style of life ways, this horticulturalist, like really maize bean squash, semi-permanent houses. These hamlets are a couple different structures.
00:41:56
Speaker
probably extended family groups, then they're scattered all across Nebraska and Kansas. They're on tributaries that lead to large rivers. But then around the 1200s, we get the medieval global warming period. And that's when there's a huge mega drought. So think of like the Dust Bowl that happened for a couple years. It was extreme. This medieval global warming period lasted
00:42:17
Speaker
over 100 years, and it was a much more intense drought. What the central plains tradition of Woodlands people do is they react. What they do in order for survival is coalesce into large towns on top of bluffs overlooking major waterways and use the floodplains for agricultural fields. This is where
Pawnee Archaeological Sites
00:42:39
Speaker
we see really proto-poneys and Erecora's
00:42:42
Speaker
showing up in terms of the archaeological record and what we later to see as identifiably Pawnee and Rickra. So there's kind of these two threads that lead to initial coalescent variant.
00:42:55
Speaker
woodland and central plains tradition. The first initial coalescent variant occupation that we know of is Lynch. That's the site that I've been working on that we've talked about. And at Lynch, we also see Oneota pottery show up. Oneota pots that are made at Lynch and Oneota style, but they're central plains tradition houses, but we also see central plains tradition pots being made. But then also in the same different households, we see this hybridization where they're making a pot that both has central plains tradition aspects and Oneota aspects.
00:43:24
Speaker
And these Oneota designs and central plane tradition designs become the progenitors for later lower-loop pottery. And lower-loop is archeologically proto-contact Pawnee settlements. So we start seeing the vestiges of where these cultural designs start coming from is trade and interaction with Oneotons from the Northeast. And definitely pop, like there's Oneotons that are staying and basically being subsumed into these larger central plane tradition folks. An initial coalesced variant, these are earth lodge towns.
00:43:51
Speaker
you know, Enblof's Lynch is at least 6,000 people. It's over a mile long. It's occupied rather contemporaneously, but there's more to be determined on that. Definitely watch out for work by Dr. Douglas Banforth and Dr. Casey Carlson, who are working at that site and in the larger synthesis that they're doing.
00:44:10
Speaker
But it's not like lynch happens and all the Central Plains tradition just stops. No, we see the formations of lynch, there are no transitions and transformations of culture take time. They're not snap of the finger, boom, one archaeological culture is over, another one begins, it's a transition. So Central Plains tradition, aspects and locations in Kansas are still going on, still going on in Nebraska, but really by 1500.
00:44:35
Speaker
the Central Plains tradition is over, and now initial coalescent variant, which is ancestral to both the Pawnee and Ericora. I don't know what the Wichita are doing at this time. I think they're down in Oklahoma and southern Kansas. Their ancestors are also Central Plains tradition, but then they go down south and do something different.
00:44:54
Speaker
I will, you know, I forget what that is. But really we're seeing like ancestral Pawnee and Rickera. And after initial coalescent variant, which ends around like 1500, we see the beginnings of the extended coalescent variant in South Dakota. Those are ancestral Rickera. Let me see the lower loop phase. That is ancestral Pawnee firmly. And then by 1600, we have contact.
00:45:18
Speaker
Now, it's important to note, in the oral traditions, and you guys have probably heard me talk about this, Pawnee oral traditions, Rickaron Wichita oral traditions, talk about shared ancestry, many talk about coming up the Missouri River, specifically South Bend Pawnee oral traditions about migration, talk about coming up the Missouri River, whereas Skeetie oral traditions really talk about always being in Nebraska.
00:45:39
Speaker
And the really detailed, like, we were already here, then we got corn, then we had earth lodges, and then we had horses. You get those three things. The South Bands are really talking about, we came up the Missouri River, we would plant crops along the way, and we kept marching up. So they came here with maize. So what I think,
00:46:03
Speaker
they speak to is that central plantation population that's coming up through the Missouri River. That's really the south band identity. They're much more being contributed to by a migrating population interacting with woodland groups in Kansas. Central plantation happens
00:46:26
Speaker
Originally, this is the main narrative. You start seeing the first appearances of central plant tradition in northeastern Kansas, really in South Bend territory. Then one of the last phases to appear is what we call the Scotty phase, which is definitely in Skeetee territory. Whereas the Skeetees talk about they got corn
00:46:48
Speaker
They were always in Nebraska. Then they got corn. They talk about getting corn from the north. With my research, there's some things with great oasis and some other groups that had corn that seemed to appear in Nebraska and interacted with weight-willing populations in which they got corn. What I think, this isn't published work, is that Skeetie oral traditions, these are really what becomes the Skeetie.
00:47:10
Speaker
Their history is way more tied to, and their oral traditions, tied to the woodland populations. Whereas the South Van Pawnees, their oral traditions are really talking to those horticulturalists coming up from the Missouri River that then interact with and mix with
00:47:27
Speaker
Kansas woodland populations. There's vestiges in terms of material culture that we see. Through this, I think the Skeetie's adoption of the Central Plains tradition appears according to this original analysis. Once again, this is going to change when we talk about my dissertation.
00:47:45
Speaker
Later on, they adopt central plains traditional horticulture. They're introduced to it by the horticulture, which sounds south, which becomes the South Bend Pawnees. How does the language fit into all this? Our old traditions talk about meeting people that speak to each other, and I think this is really speaking to what I talked about earlier.
00:48:05
Speaker
The Great Plains is ancestrally a Katoan-speaking area, and even the oral traditions of the South Bands would talk about coming from the Missouri. Before they were at the Missouri River, they came from across Oklahoma and somewhere from the Southwest. So, they were already in this Katoan region. Speakers, I think they're Katoans as well, ancestral Katoan speakers that just kind of travel across the Southern Plains and end up in the Central Plains. I think I need to talk more with the tribe about this and some other groups.
00:48:34
Speaker
Because a lot of the oral traditions that talk about this Missouri River stuff, it's really South Bend oral traditions that are hearkening to this, whereas Skeety oral traditions, I can't express enough, they're the ones that are like, well, we've always been here. But you also see remnants and vestiges of South Bend oral traditions, where you can definitely tell there's ancestral hunter and gatherers. They're also speaking to oral traditions. No, we've always been in Kansas. Because you can also see Central Plains tradition hunting camps and later initial coalescent hunting camps.
00:49:02
Speaker
the hunting camp center in the west in Colorado, Wyoming, they're on top of Central Plains tradition and woodland hunting camps. Now, is that an artifact of, well, those are just best places to camp? They could be, but also, I think there is knowledge being transferred, right? Basically, you're a Central Plains tradition horticulturalist,
00:49:24
Speaker
But your grandfather, he was the hunter gatherer the days before corn, back when they had to walk up a mountain both ways just to kill a bison. He was telling his son and grandkids, these are the best hunting camps. Go find the hunting camps here in Colorado, Wyoming. They wouldn't have said Colorado, Wyoming. Those words haven't been invented yet.
00:49:42
Speaker
He would have showed his kids that, right? So there's that transfer of knowledge, right? You can think about hunters today and people today, right? You guys retain knowledge from your grandparents. You also got knowledge from their grandparents. Like we see this culturally in the dishes we make, how we prepare dishes or how we do things. That is
00:49:57
Speaker
transfer of knowledge. So, when we see these multi-component sites of Woodland, central plantarish, initial coalescent variant to lower loop and extended coalescent, this march through time in which at the same sites we see these stratified sites with these different components, that's what I think it's speaking to is that transfer of knowledge. You have both Woodland
00:50:16
Speaker
contributions, and the central plain tradition contributions. This isn't wild, right? If you ask a question like, how do you define the history of England today, or Great Britain? You have to talk about the histories of
00:50:31
Speaker
the Vikings, the Romans, the Celts, the Welsh, right? There's so many ancestral groups and histories that are threaded together to make the tapestry that is the United Kingdom today, that is the same for indigenous communities, indigenous populations of the present in North America, that we have these contemporary tribal nations, but in the past, they're not these
00:50:57
Speaker
these static populations that march through time without change, that the Pawnee Nation today, the Arikara Nation today, which is part of MHA and the Wichita and affiliated tribes, these contemporary nations are the product of
00:51:12
Speaker
a much more diverse and complex history than many people realize. I hope this was to illustrate that there's a lot going on in the plains. What leads up to the Pawnee Nation today is coalescence of different groups from different backgrounds, from different parts of the plains, coming together, sharing knowledge, developing their own identity, which then later comes the Pawnee Nation in the Central Plains.
00:51:35
Speaker
And then even our identity today is different because a lot of Pawnees today come from different tribes as well, like the appearance of different tribes and some of their cultural knowledge is coming from these different groups, right? So even there's change today in terms of what we mean to be Pawnee.
00:51:52
Speaker
you guys see me, and you guys, if you've seen me in person, you know, I am fair-skinned with blue eyes, yet I am pawning, right? Like, I have my CIB, my certificate of Indian blood. I engage with cultural practices, and I've worked very closely with the tribe. And that's the same for most Indigenous people, right? Like, I want to do this talk because I've been
00:52:15
Speaker
you know, recently got back from a week-long trip to Pawnee. And more recently, these past couple years, I've had way more people reach out to me about Pawnee history or wanted to know more about Pawnee history. And it's like...
00:52:26
Speaker
man, it's not an easy answer. There's no one straight line that I can direct someone at a time like, oh yes, this, this, this, this. We need to talk about hunter-gatherers. We have to talk about how does corn get up? And this is another fascinating topic. Why do a lot of cultures in North America have very similar
00:52:46
Speaker
corn ceremonies and corn beliefs. It's like, well, corn came from one place in Mexico. In order to get corn, you had to be taught how to grow it. Those people told you their ceremonies behind corn. That's how that corn culture has grown. In order to get it, you had to be taught it, and you were taught by someone who had a corn culture. That's how we all have these very similar
00:53:07
Speaker
backgrounds and beliefs around corn because that's how it's spread. It's part of the corn package, like your old maize flakes box. The ingredients on the side and how to make it, they're kind of the same ingredients list and how you grow maize.
00:53:26
Speaker
I hope this
Listener Engagement and Support
00:53:27
Speaker
has been a good lecture. I know the last one was a lot more fire and brimstone. I was like way more agitated about some things. And this one, I really just kind of want to talk about a subject that I find fascinating and we can do more of these. So if you guys have any other topics that you'd like me to give a lecture about, I'd be like more than happy to do that. So there's a number of references that I have used for this knowledge. I'll put them in the show notes. There is, um,
00:53:52
Speaker
Archaeology of the Great Plains, 1998. Most of the Plains archaeology stuff is dated, except there's a fantastic new book, The Archaeology of the North American Great Plains by Douglas Vanforth, my mentor and dissertation advisor who is fucking waiting so long for me to finish the dissertation so he can publish some stuff. That came out in 2021, I believe, or is it 2022? I'm sorry, Doug, if you're listening, but I know Doug doesn't listen to my podcast. He can't fucking stand me at this point.
00:54:23
Speaker
Anyways, this came out very recently and it's not like a traditional archaeology book where it's like Paleo-Indian period, here's everything in the Paleo-Indian. Dr. Banforth, you know, he aligns his book more as kind of like a story, you know, like peopling in the continent.
00:54:38
Speaker
mounds, pots, pipes, and bison, the plains woodland period, settled farmers and their neighbors. This is like a much more holistic view of the Great Plains, what's going on between regions and how we can track changes in time and like a way more synthetic or synthesis of what's happening on the Great Plains. So highly recommend that book, but also read it in conjunction with Archaeology of the Great Plains.
00:54:59
Speaker
or, you know, Kansas archaeology. Some of those more specific archaeology books that go through the taxon of archaeological cultures, so you can look at Doug's book, he'll give you the whole history of the plains, and you can go to some of these older books and kind of get a sense of where he's drawing this data from. Now, of course, it's been
00:55:18
Speaker
over 20 years since 1998 when a lot of these other books were written. So there has been changes. And with that, please be sure to rate and review the podcast. You can rate the podcast on iTunes, Spotify, Google Play, Stitcher, and then you can leave comments for us on iTunes. So we love hearing from you guys. You can also email us at a life and ruins podcast at gmail.com. Anne and others have been emailing us. We absolutely love fan feedback. We really love hearing from you guys what we got right.
00:55:47
Speaker
especially what we got wrong, especially when David's wrong. We love hearing it when David's wrong, which doesn't happen very often, but it does.
00:55:54
Speaker
So yeah, no, please continue. And if you're listening to us on the All Shows feed, please, please, please subscribe to our show individually. When you do that, it allows us to track who is listening to our show and where from, and also helps us get sponsors and advertisers, right? So that helps us. We want to do more content for you guys, but we can't do that without any sort of financial income. We've been doing this for over three years now, where we still have not seen a check.
00:56:21
Speaker
So everything, this whole podcast, all of our equipment and production is really done for free. And, you know, the folks that are like that at archeology podcast network, Chris and Rachel, you know, anytime we get advertisers or sponsors portion, it goes to them to cover the costs. So helping us helps them produce our show and the more money we make, the more money they make and the more, the better quality our show becomes. So if you support us, you support the APN, we can do much cooler things. And with that, this is Carlton.
Conclusion and Credits
00:56:50
Speaker
We will see you next time.
00:56:58
Speaker
Thanks for listening to a life in ruins podcast. You can follow us on Instagram and Facebook at a life in ruins podcast. And you can also email us at a life in ruins podcast at gmail.com. And remember, make sure to bring your archeologists in from the cold and feed them beer.
00:57:27
Speaker
This episode was produced by Chris Webster from his RV traveling the United States, Tristan Boyle in Scotland, Dig Tech LLC, Culturo Media, and the Archaeology Podcast Network, and was edited by Chris Webster. This has been a presentation of the Archaeology Podcast Network. Visit us on the web for show notes and other podcasts at www.archpodnet.com. Contact us at chris at archaeologypodcastnetwork.com.