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Is There a Doctor in the House - Arch and Ale 45
1k Plays1 year ago
This month we have something different for our listeners
We invited a group of 6 Post-Graduate Researchers and Recently qualified Doctors to explain their research to the general public in no more than 10 minutes.
Our speakers and project titles were as follows:
Chris Dwan - Landscape Stability & the Formation of Social Memory in Prehistoric Britain.
Kate Faulkes - Tackling the Urban Godless Poor - How Successful were Sheffield’s Commissioner Churches 1826 - 1865.
Dr Nina Maaranen - Teeth are Awesome! An Archaeologist's Perspective.
Kelsey Madden - Digging for Italy - Vagnari Vicus and Faleril Novi.
Yvette Marks - A Re-assessment of Copper Smelting in the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Agean.
Dr Sam Purchase - Point and Shoot: A Radiographic Analysis of Mastoiditis in Archaeological Populations from England’s North-East.
Archaeology & Ale is a monthly series of talks presented by Archaeology in the City, part of the University of Sheffield Archaeology Department’s outreach programme.
This talk took place on Monday 27th February 2023 at The Red Deer, Pitt Street, Sheffield
For more information about Archaeology in the City’s events and opportunities to get involved, please email [email protected] or visit our website at archinthecity.wordpress.com. You can also find us on Twitter (@archinthecity), Instagram (@archaeointhecity), or Facebook (@archinthecity)
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Transcript
Introduction to Archaeology in Ale
00:00:00
Speaker
You're listening to the Archaeology Podcast Network.
00:00:29
Speaker
Hello everyone and welcome to Episode 45 of Archaeology in Ale, a free monthly public archaeology talk brought to you by Archaeology in the City, the community outreach programme from the University of Sheffield's Department of Archaeology. We are once again in the red, dear Sheffield, and our talk is entitled, Is There a Doctor in the House?
Presenting the Researchers
00:00:49
Speaker
We brought together six postgraduate researchers and recently qualified doctors to talk to us about their work. We have, however, restricted them to just 10 minutes each.
Landscape and Memory in Prehistoric Britain
00:00:59
Speaker
Our first speaker is Chris Duan and his topic is Landscape Stability and the Formation of Social Memory in Prehistoric Britain. Take it away, Chris.
00:01:23
Speaker
Thank you, Steve. A round of applause for Steve Hollings, isn't he fantastic?
00:01:31
Speaker
Thank you for inviting all of us, Steve. Yeah, whatever he said. Steve really kind of pulled archeology and ale up from the dead and breathed new life into it, like God breathing life into Adam. So we do appreciate him very much. For the purposes of the tape, Steve, I'm going to try very hard not to curse, so I'm very sorry.
00:01:51
Speaker
So I'm going to quickly take you through what I've been doing for the past four years, something I lovingly or hateingly called Landscape Stability and the Formation of Social Memory in Prehistoric Britain. It's not a mouthful at all. Mouthful, excuse me. So just a fair warning, this is a pretty fuzzy theory-led project. So for those of you that are otherwise inclined, be aware there is archaeological theory incoming. So if you want to go use the toilet, no one's blaming you.
00:02:21
Speaker
So typically, in my opinion, yeah.
00:02:27
Speaker
The bar is right downstairs. No one will blame you. So in the past, prehistorians typically tend to look at this idea of memory in prehistory and the reuse of features, the reuse of sites, the reuse of materials. Examples might be Richard Bradley, who's on the far right there, talking about things like a timber circle being used, similarly, for ritual purposes.
00:02:53
Speaker
demolished and then after a period of time a new one or a stone circle is erected in its place. That kind of idea of people returning to a place over and over and over again and reusing it even there for similar purposes or somehow venerating those who were there before them.
00:03:09
Speaker
And these are all well and good, and these have been pretty influential in my time as an archaeologist. But my issue with them, where my PhD comes into it, is I don't think a lot of them really consider the landscape and the role of the earth itself or the place that they're in in this idea of memories and creating memories. And the earth or the landscape is kind of treated as this canvas upon which people just do things.
00:03:35
Speaker
So my angle is to look at what I refer to as landscape temporalities. And this is to, again, look at this idea of prehistory and memory and reusing places, but looking at places that I think of as being relatively stable, meaning slow changing landscapes. These are your uplands, your mountain ranges, places with fairly solid geology that
00:03:55
Speaker
Of course, chains like all things change, but over a pretty slow period of time, or relatively dynamic landscapes, wetlands, peat bogs, intertidal zones, places that change fairly quickly, usually due to changing hydrology and changing vegetation. Well, this theory I can hear Colin dying on the inside just a little bit.
00:04:16
Speaker
So the question I always like to pose the couple times I've presented this is how does this idea of reusing a place and having memory of place and making a place change if you're in a
00:04:27
Speaker
an upland, a place that changes again very slowly like Bodmin Moor here, which is on the top left. That's a stone hut circle, sorry, I lost the word for a minute, hut circle settlement in a granite upland down in Cornwall versus a more dynamic landscape. This is the Somerset levels, which is a place that's has in for as long as we've, since prehistory has been prone to
00:04:51
Speaker
seasonal flooding, things like that. And so where the theory comes into this is there's basically two strands I look at. I look at what I refer to as the materialization of landscape, which is this idea of material, I'm sorry, of landscape being a material culture upon which people impress their memories, impress their dwelling, and then return to and read that material to look at how past peoples dwelled within a place.
00:05:16
Speaker
And then this idea of social memory and its importance to prehistoric communities. So how important was it to dwell within a place in such a way that you venerated the past or that you left something behind that future generations could read? And again, what's the role in the landscape and all of that?
00:05:32
Speaker
So I looked at three places. I looked at Bodmin Murr, which is down here. I'm really just having fun with the laser pointer now. Somerset's levels, which is here, and the well side of the Severn estuary up here. And I'm going to very quickly go through my methodology, mostly because I only have six minutes left.
00:05:48
Speaker
also because I just don't want to talk about it and I'd rather talk about my results. So it's been a pretty GIS-centric project. This has been a process of looking at, this is my study area in the Somerset levels, so that's that kind of second one I mentioned. So it's been a process of
00:06:06
Speaker
mapping the landscape, looking at what I think of as different zones in the landscape, looking at the rate at which they change. That could be due to the likelihood of erosion, of flooding, of just rapid changes in vegetation. I tend to divide things up being either whether it's changes on a seasonal basis, changes on a yearly to decade basis, et cetera, et cetera, that kind of thing. You can ask me afterwards or don't.
00:06:32
Speaker
And then overlaying the archaeological data from them, which I just have to quickly mention that for all three of these places, the historic environmental records have been fantastic because they've pretty much given me all the archaeological data. I frankly wouldn't have been able to do it without them.
Archaeological Themes of Continuity and Erasure
00:06:45
Speaker
And then just looking at where things overlap, when activity was happening, what type of activity was happening, what, again, the stability of that landscape was, how quickly were things changing, or how quickly was the landscape changing.
00:06:58
Speaker
and what types of archaeology are we finding there? How are people inhabiting the landscape?
00:07:03
Speaker
And so just general discussions and themes, things that I found. There were three big themes I touched on in my discussion. The first is this idea of landmarks, places that people seem to identify with, places that serve as a bit of a focal point for activity to occur around. Creating continuity, continuity on large scales and on smaller scales. That goes back to this idea that I said has been very regular in the way prehistorians look at memory in terms of
00:07:31
Speaker
returning to a place and venerating places that have had activity at them in the past. And then finally, this idea of erasure and disruption when places maybe are intentionally forgotten or intentionally abandoned or erased in such a way that the memory of them is almost the memory of them not being there rather than the memory of them being there.
00:07:53
Speaker
So that first one I mentioned is Landmarks. This is an example I like a lot. This is my Severn Estuary case study. This is a place called Goldcliffe Island. It really looks more like a peninsula nowadays, but it was basically during prehistory would have been a little island popping up through all the peat bog that was surrounding it. And this is a place where you find activity across this intertidal zone, but a lot of it always focusing around this
00:08:17
Speaker
island around this kind of more stable bedrock chunk that's popping out of the peat while the rest of the landscape is changing. This is staying relatively the same and people are coming back to that area because it's something they identify with. That's strengthened by the fact that excavations done in the 90s and in the early 2000s have shown quite a lot of ritual deposits, burials, things like that happening from the Mesolithic up until the mid to late Bronze Age on that island.
00:08:45
Speaker
Maybe more obvious examples are places like Hilltops, again, places that don't change very much. This is Rough Tour Summit on Bodmin Mer, one of the more kind of what I think of as a relatively stable landscape in my case studies. And this is a place that had, you know, again, these a lot of veneration and ritual acts, ritual deposits.
00:09:03
Speaker
in the late Mesolithic, which then became stone circles and things like that being built in the Neolithic. And then interestingly, during the Bronze Age, you kind of see this instead of people revisiting the site and most people giving a respectable distance. So again, there's a memory of that place and people are acknowledging that place, but instead of through building things there, it's almost through staying well away from it for whatever reason.
00:09:26
Speaker
Thank you, sir. The other theme was continuity. So there's this idea of large-scale continuity with an entire landscape being used over and over again for a similar purchase, whether that's food procurement or potentially trade, things like that. This is just a picture I chose from the Brew Valley in the Somerset levels, which is one of the more dynamic landscapes. So again, a place that's going to change fairly frequently, but still you see this continuity of people revisiting.
00:09:54
Speaker
And then what I think of is kind of like micro continuities. This is the excavation of the sweet tracks also in the Brew Valley during the 1980s. And this is a place where you see these wood trackways being built across the bog to sort of connect the drier areas between settlements. And you see these successive trackways being built over and over again over the period of a couple generations. So this idea of people
00:10:16
Speaker
getting to know a place as a routeway across the bog, across the less stable landscape, and then revisiting that. So after a trackway becomes unusable, kind of revisiting it and building a new one there. And then finally, this idea of erasure. This is a Iron Age, the remains of an Iron Age rectangular structure being excavated in the intertidal zone, the Severn estuary. And so you see these forces. In this case, it's a natural force like tides kind of erasing
00:10:45
Speaker
evidence of previous inhabitation. And in other cases, it's things like forest clearance, changing the landscape and changing the way people get to know the landscape. So in that case, kind of a disruption in the way memories form. And that gets into this idea of affordance and phenomenology, which I know is a dirty word in this department. And so again, getting into the archaeological theory.
00:11:05
Speaker
So I don't really, I'm sorry, I'm very sorry, I don't really have a proper climax to all of this, but that's what I've been doing, so I'll end it there. You're very welcome to disagree with me. Understand, I am technically a doctor now, so. Thank you.
Commissioner Churches and Urban Impact
00:11:20
Speaker
Thank you very much, I wasn't going for that. So the point is, disagree at your own peril, bring your credentials, and I'll see you in court, quite frankly. Thank you very much.
00:11:33
Speaker
Thank you Chris, and now we turn to Katie Fawkes, whose topic is tackling the urban godless poor, how successful were Sheffield's Commissioner churches 1826 to 1856.
00:11:46
Speaker
Thank you very much. As you can see, I'm Kate. I'm the first year PhD student, so I'm still at the beginning of this tortuous journey. Those of you who know me will be thinking, Kate, there is no way that Kate can only talk for 10 minutes. I promise I'm going to try. The other people will be thinking, what is an atheist like me talking about commissioner's churches and what the hell is one anyway? Don't worry, it all will be revealed. So without further ado, what is a commissioner's church? I want you to picture
00:12:13
Speaker
Sheffield in 1815, the Napoleonic Wars have ended, you've got lots of young fit men returning after the war, no jobs, it's like the wild, when Colin was a boy, yes, absolutely, and it's basically, it's like the Wild West, you've got no police force, you've got, there isn't a single year between 1790 and 1815 where you don't have at least one riot.
00:12:37
Speaker
sometimes you've got riots of 10,000 people and at the time the population's only 46,000 so you're talking about a seriously unrested kind of place. So what you've got
00:12:50
Speaker
Lots of writing. There was huge worry that the establishment really thought two things. They thought that the revolution was going to happen in Britain. It's only less than 20 years since the French Revolution. All these riots made them think, yes, the revelation is definitely going to happen. And they thought it was going to happen in Sheffield.
00:13:08
Speaker
Sheffield had a reputation as being the most radical town in the land. It was also a hive of Methodism, which was considered to be, by the established church, considered to be a very bad thing. So in order to tackle this urban godlessness, you've got all these people moving from the countryside into the town. All the Anglican churches are in the countryside, they're not in the towns, and so lots of people are becoming godless
00:13:32
Speaker
or they are also becoming Methodist, which is just as bad, if not worse, in the Anglican churches' view, so they thought, what are we going to do about this? So they decided they were going to build 612 new Anglican churches across England, and four of them are in Sheffield, and I'll talk about which ones they are in a minute.
00:13:47
Speaker
and they were providing free pew space for the urban godless and that was actually the phrase that they used. They were terribly worried about that people were going to be secular. They also built these churches very close to the big Methodist chapels which tell you a little bit about how worried they were about the competition that people from dissenting faiths, particularly in the north of England. They were also designed to provide more burial space.
00:14:12
Speaker
There are some hideous kind of contemporary descriptions of walking past what is now the cathedral, what was then the parish church, and an arm flipping out of a grave, you know, and the smell being so bad you couldn't get within 200 yards of it on a summer's day. So definitely need for more.
00:14:29
Speaker
burial space and starting to understand that it was a health hazard. But they were also, these churches that were built, they had huge expectations on them. They were seen as providing this real bulwark against the, for the establishment against disorder, against revolution, against people becoming Methodists. And so they were, these churches were built and a huge amount was expected of them.
00:14:51
Speaker
So this is my, I'm just going to gloss over this very quickly, so basically my research question is to say how well did the commissioner churches tackle the things they were set up to address, but with particular reference to these three things, ministering to the industrial pool,
00:15:08
Speaker
educating, improving and civilising the poor into respectability. And they actually used those phrases. They talked about civilising the poor. Like they would talk about civilising somebody in, you know, the third world at the time. But also about how much they managed to reinforce the social and political status quo. So how much did they stop people becoming even more radical than their asses already were? So this was what they were up against. This is an external Methodist preacher preaching to the poor.
00:15:36
Speaker
And this is the improvement agenda. I'm just thinking, look at this woman on the right hand, on the left hand side here. She doesn't look like she wants to be improved much, does she? She looks proper pissed off at the idea that somebody stuffed her in a corset and then she's got to a long skirt and then she's got to scrub things. I'd have been quite pissed off myself. So this was very much the agenda of what was being planned.
00:15:56
Speaker
So, where are the churches? One of them, you'll recognise, St George's is now in the university campus, it's now, you know, university lecture theatre and accommodation, built in 1826, obviously still a church, still a big graveyard there, 15,000 people buried in there, can you believe, where on earth did they put them all? So that's the first one.
00:16:20
Speaker
The University are adamant that they haven't actually taken any away, but I think they kind of must have done. So the second one, Christchurch in Attacliff, that was bombed by the Nazis and there's nothing there now except the graveyard, but the graveyard is still there. Then you've got St Philip's at Shalesmore. There is literally almost nothing that remains of it at all. It was again bombed by the Nazis and everything that was remaining was
00:16:49
Speaker
taken away by the inner ring road, apart from bizarrely...
00:16:55
Speaker
This beautiful brass plaque, which anybody is welcome to look at, which was given to me by my hairdresser. Yes, I have a hairdresser. But it's about 200 yards from the shop. And this guy came in and said, I was on the demolition team in the 50s when this was when the church was demolished. I took this home because I thought it was a shame for it to have been chucked away because I hit it with a pickaxe, which is what that bit there is.
00:17:20
Speaker
And he kept it for all those years and felt guilty about it. He said, I thought it should be somewhere near the church. So he brought it back to my hairdresser. He was kind of giving it to me. So I'm looking for a way to rehome it in a museum somewhere. And then last but not least, the last one, St Mary's on Bramall Lane, which I'm sure you'll know. The only one that's still in operation is a church. Now you can see they've got a certain sort of similar gothic look to them. And obviously they were very much built to a bit of a blueprint on the cheap.
00:17:46
Speaker
So basically I'm planning to take what's called a historical archaeological approach, which basically means that I use documentary sources and archaeological sources. So I'm going to start off looking at the documentary sources, look at the buildings, look at the burial grounds, then I'm going to move out and look at the wider landscape and look at the role that the church has played in the civic sphere, including educating and improving the poor.
00:18:09
Speaker
I'm going to use what's called a posthumanist in us, which sounds very fancy, accessing suburban, subaltern narratives. Basically it means telling the stories of poor people because these were churches which had poor and rich people in them because somebody had to pay the vicar. So there were 50% of the seats were paid for and that paid the vicar salary. The other half were free for the poor. So you're talking about quite
00:18:33
Speaker
churches which were probably fairly contested spaces, you know, they were viewed as things where they were supposed to be very Tory spaces. Actually, the research that I'm looking into suggests that they were actually quite a lot more complicated than that and they reflected the radicalism of the town as well as the more conservative things.
00:18:51
Speaker
So what am I going to use? I'm going to use standing building surveys and analysis of styles. I'm going to do burial ground surveys when they're still there. I'm going to analyze the location and significance of the churches in the wider landscape and use historic mapping and things like that. But I'm also using
00:19:06
Speaker
newspaper, court records, baptismal records, burial records, census records. And what I'm doing is I'm, for each of the churches, I'm getting a large sample of people who I'm chasing through the census to find out more about them so that I can actually look at the families, how much they will, you know, how poor were they, what did they die of, you know, all that sort of stuff. So that's very much the historical side of it.
00:19:29
Speaker
So what do I expect to find? Well, I'm only in my first year, so actually this is quite a punt at this stage. But I think the congregations were, thank you, were highly mixed, they were affluent and poor. And I think, but I'm already starting to find differences between the four churches. So for instance, St Mary seems to have a lot more knobby people going to it than say, for instance, St Philip's did.
00:19:54
Speaker
I think they were contested spaces. The idea that they were all full of Tory people who, you know, were all about reinforcing the status quo. There were clearly people like that there, but I think there were also lots and lots of radical people. I've already found, for instance, some of the people who were arrested for Chartist offenses, for rioting and making bombs and stuff like that are buried in these churches. So the idea that, you know, they were, that all of the people who were involved in radicalism were all Methodists.
00:20:19
Speaker
not proving to be true at all but when they only had 4,000 free pews and when you think by 1861 the population was 186,000 that's not an awful lot really and they never had school places for more than five percent of the the population's children so they were never the biggest show in town the Methodists always kind of beat them to it in sheer numbers really
00:20:42
Speaker
So I think they made some improvement of the respectable poor, but their impact on the very poor was probably minimal. So, you know, if you've got the aspiring people who wanted to aspire to be respectable, I think they probably did have some impact on that. But for the very poor, I suspect that the impact was very small.
00:20:59
Speaker
They seem to have been quite peripheral to civic activity. Some of the people who attended there were very civically involved, but the churches themselves don't seem to have been. They seem to have very much taken their mission to minister to the poor very seriously, and that was what they mainly did. And in a largely liberal and radical town, they were kind of, you know, the Tory element of that was never really going to fly, I don't think.
00:21:24
Speaker
But I think in the long term, there was an acceptance of capitalism and the capitalist system that happened in the 19th century. And radicalism did slowly decline, particularly after Chartism disappeared in the late 1840s. And I think that the commissioner churches probably paid their part in that, but alongside the local government and the other dissenting churches. And that's me.
00:21:49
Speaker
Thank you, Kate. We're moving on now to Nina, whose title is Teeth Are Awesome, an archaeologist's perspective.
Migration Patterns in Ancient Egypt
00:21:58
Speaker
You can already see that we're off to a good start because the title of my presentation is titled Teeth Are Awesome. Basically, what I figured for the spirit of the evening, I'll be talking about my PhD research that I did and the way that teeth actually
00:22:16
Speaker
basically saved the entire project because one of the main sites that I worked at I hadn't actually seen it before I had to go and collect data on it and I was told that it was about 200 individuals and I thought that's so much data.
00:22:32
Speaker
The material comes from Egypt. Egypt is nice and dry. Everything preserves. I am going to have a problem with too much data and no clue what to do with all of it. And when I got to the site or the museum where I was supposed to collect the data and I opened the box and I'm like, oh!
00:22:51
Speaker
I will have no data. And this is because the one thing that I had not thought about was the fact that the site that I was going to go and collect data from was in the Nile Delta. The Nile Delta is in the Nile River Valley.
00:23:06
Speaker
and floods every year so this material had been inundated by water for thousands of years and every year it would flush away some of the organic material from the bones and what had happened was the bones were becoming very soft they had squished they had skewed they had fractured the the surfaces had flaked off it was just it was a mess
00:23:34
Speaker
And I was there with, I don't know, four weeks and slightly maybe hyperventilating at this point, thinking like, OK, what am I going to do? And then what I realized is that the one thing that was still more or less intact was the teeth. And one of the things that my project that I was working at, it was part of a larger project.
00:23:56
Speaker
They were interested in migration because this site in Egypt had been established during the 12th dynasty about
00:24:06
Speaker
1700 years BC, more or less. And it was established because Egypt really wanted to get in on the Eastern Mediterranean trade network, which was booming at this time. Copper and bronze objects were just flying across and there were other technological big improvements and just everything was going back and forth.
00:24:29
Speaker
And this site, known at the time for the Egyptians, was called Rawati, later Hutwaret. To the Ptolemains, it was called the Varus, and then now we often, quite often call it Teledaba because of the modern village nearby. So this site became one of the biggest middle Bronze Age Toa of Dynasty sites there was. It grew to about 250 hectares.
00:24:58
Speaker
And for reference, most sites were about six at the time, so this was huge. It was a cosmopolitan place with a lot of people coming in and out. And a lot of evidence, actually, people coming from outside of Egypt and staying.
00:25:15
Speaker
so the big question was were these people actually just bringing in trade goods and that's what we're seeing or were they also staying and then deciding to live there as well because some of the material culture was something that you would not see in trade relations it was something like cooking ware for instance so people were bringing their own technological traditions with them and then just applying them to local material so
00:25:44
Speaker
teeth. Why are teeth good for that? The same way that you can tell what people are biologically close to one another. So we'll say you can tell families or even bigger regions. You can tell where people are from based on how they look just by different
00:26:04
Speaker
features that you can have so that is something that is not just in your soft tissue it is also in your heart tissue aka your skeleton and your bones and teeth because they are very much governed by your DNA because it is very important that your teeth are stable no matter what happens during life so they are very good for doing
00:26:31
Speaker
biological similarity studies, so we can use them as proxies for DNA, basically. And at this point, it's good to mention that all that flushing that had happened on the bones, it had also taken away all the collagen, and collagen is what you need for DNA analyses. So almost all of the biochemical analyses that we usually use in bioarchaeological studies were completely useless.
00:26:59
Speaker
So, but we still have the teeth and we have the morphological appearance of the features of the teeth. So what I did was I recorded all of that information
00:27:08
Speaker
And I had a starting point. And then later in that project, two other researchers joined me. One was doing a postdoc on long behold biochemical analysis, which means that her study was a little bit stumped, but she was able to use the enamel, which is harder than the dentin in the teeth.
00:27:31
Speaker
and she was able to get somewhere. And then another person also came in to look at the teeth and did oral health. And oral health is very good for looking at just the general well-being of people and also seeing whether there's differences between different statuses or whether there's differences as time goes by. And so, where was I? Yes.
00:27:59
Speaker
How much time do I have? Four minutes left. Four minutes. Oh, so long. I said you could do an interpretive down. It might come to that. I don't know which one is better at the end. Yes, so long story short.
00:28:21
Speaker
With the teeth, we were able to say that yes, a good number of people at this site in eastern Nile Delta actually did come from outside of Egypt. But even the ones that looked like they were non-local,
00:28:41
Speaker
looked biologically the same as the ones who were local, which means that either the people who were already there, they had come even earlier than the ones that we had sampled, potentially either through forced migration or other types of migration.
00:29:04
Speaker
And what we could tell as well is that at the beginning of this time period when they started coming over, there was a lot of different dental diseases, particularly, I think, carious enamel hypoplasia. Enamel hypoplasia is something that happens in childhood when you experience a lot of nutritional stress, for instance.
00:29:29
Speaker
And I think what we saw is that this decreased as time went by. So what we could see is a group of people coming from outside, settling, and then stabilizing as time went on.
00:29:49
Speaker
And that was just the analysis inside the site. When compared to the larger region, we could tell that they were coming from those same sites that Egypt was so interested in having trade relations with in the Eastern Mediterranean during this time period. And we know that in this region, there was probably a lot of
00:30:13
Speaker
In the coastline itself, and when I say coastline in Levant, I mean regions from northern Syria to Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan. This and then Cyprus was also a big deal in this trade relationship. So people were coming from all of these places, particularly in the Levantine region,
00:30:42
Speaker
And what we have evidence is that in Mesopotamia at this time period, things were starting to get a little unstable and it was potentially pushing people. Yes, one minute. Pushing people also into somewhere, maybe things were a little bit more stable.
00:31:04
Speaker
And so you have that movement to Egypt, where everything was lush and beautiful and something. And rots your bones. Exactly. And I think that's it. Love them or hate them. That's what they say. Thank you, Dina. We now turn to Kelsey.
00:31:28
Speaker
Kelsey's title is Digging for Italy, Vagnari Viscus and Fallari Novi. Excuse my pronunciation.
Vagnari Vigus and Emperor Augustus
00:31:37
Speaker
So to start with the Vanieri Vigus imperial estate, what is an imperial state? So it's an enormous land holding owned by the emperor to raise revenues based on agricultural, transhumance and trade. So it's not a fancy villa, as one might think.
00:31:55
Speaker
But we have some fancy stuff I'll show you in a minute. So Vanyri is the only imperial estate excavated to date. So this is the only data we have on this type of working estate in southern Italy. So just to give you kind of context, where that red star is is Batromagno, which is ancient Silvian, which was settled first in seventh century BC by the Peocheti tribe, and then later taken over by the Samnites.
00:32:22
Speaker
Rome expanded in the 4th century, defeated the Samnites at Silvium in 306 BC, and then they had conflicts with Pyrrhus and Hannibal later in the 1st and 2nd centuries BC.
00:32:34
Speaker
This conflicts obviously cause disruption in southern Italy and confiscated territory by Rome. And Scipio Africanus is right up to date to where we are. And he took a bunch of land from the natives and gave them to Roman soldiers because we don't want them to be unhappy and come back and kill us all. And this is called the agropubicus.
00:32:58
Speaker
In the red dot we have Vanyri and the blue star is Matramanyo.
00:33:04
Speaker
So Vannery was settled first in the second century BC through the first century, sorry, the second century BC through the first century BC. We don't know who established the second century settlement. More excavation needs to be done, but it might have been rented out or leased to locals by Roman authorities. So it was resettled in the first century AD where we have evidence for the elite owner.
00:33:31
Speaker
And here's some objects that come from that. And the second century AD is the focus on the settlement of production. And it is settled all the way up through to the fourth century AD.
00:33:44
Speaker
But the interesting stuff comes from the second, the first and second AD. How do we know this was owned by a Roman emperor? Well, we have a stamped tile from the site that says Caesar Augustus and Gratus, which is the slave of Caesar. So we know that at some point Caesar himself or Augustus taking the name upon Caesar acquired this estate around the first, second, latter, first century BC, and he owned slaves that worked there. So there's our evidence
00:34:14
Speaker
for that. It's also located on the Via Appia, which is a major roadway in Italy, and it's also on Turturros, which are droveways, so for transhuman purposes. That's just the view of the site when you're looking out, so you have the Vicus all the way out there, and then we have a necropolis behind it, so we have those who lived and those who died.
00:34:37
Speaker
right here. Here is a plan of the site of the building that we have so far. So you can see a GPR on the right hand side. We have a cistern underneath the settlement and then it goes further
00:34:53
Speaker
further east. So we have diverse cereal cultivation. All those blue dots are storage pits. So we have free threshing wheat, glum, and barley throughout different phases of the site, one through four. So there's four different phases of processing. Various species are processed and stored throughout these phases. And the crop diversity could mean insurance against climate variability, ample soil erosion, or just reflects the advanced knowledge of farming in this part of southern Italy.
00:35:22
Speaker
We also have Jeep grazing for production of wool. So we have maps here of just the the the droveways and we have Varro talking about how flocks of sheep are driven all the way from Apulia, which is the region that Vanyuri is in, into Siminium for summering and tax purposes. We found a winery.
00:35:40
Speaker
This is called the Sala Venaria in Latin. It indirectly provides evidence for established vineyards in the second century AD, so this is when the winery was established. It's relatively small compared to other wineries in Italy and other working villas and estates.
00:35:58
Speaker
So we're assuming that all of this wine was produced locally and distributed locally. There was not a large export for this because there was also a very lavish villa up on the hill that was owned supposedly by Pompey. So they're probably supplying wine for them as well.
00:36:15
Speaker
So the winery goes out of use in the third century AD. And then we did some chemical analysis on the residue for the dolia, which are the wine vats. This was done by the British Academy funded by Giuseppe Montana at the University of Palermo. So one might think that they would make these massive vessels close by the site. Turns out,
00:36:39
Speaker
Not. Why would they, you know, spend extra money to do this? Because they could in the room, and why not? So we found out that the fabrics do come from one of these two, one of these three areas here, and then they were made and then shipped down south. So there was no rhyme or reason behind that. It was because they could. They had specialists, so why change something? Why fix it if it's not broken, right? So then we have evidence for local pots.
00:37:06
Speaker
and tile supplies. We have evidence for glass making. Actually the glass vessels and window glass which is very rare to find archaeologically was more than likely processed in Egypt and then the raw material was brought to the Mediterranean from that point on. Herbal
00:37:26
Speaker
there in the middle used for cladding in pavements. So there was working going on. There was enslaved people here, but they weren't working in ugly conditions. I'll tell you that. These were subjected to geochemical and petrographic analysis, decorative
00:37:43
Speaker
Stone came from limestone in Italy, the plain white marble from Athens, and the white and bluish gray from quarries in Southwest Asia Minor. This is a digital reconstruction of the beakus, and we have a monograph edited by Maureen Carroll, the site director. It's great, it's wonderful, please buy it. I'm not bias.
00:38:01
Speaker
Moving on! So, now that the vineyard has come to sort of a close for now, I'm now involved with the Fillery-Noby project with the British School of Rome in partnership with Harvard, Toronto, and Ghent. So, according to historical sources, Fillery-Noby was founded on Rome's destruction of the nearby Phyllis to consider of Fillery-Vetris in 241 BC. So, we have Fillery-Vetris on the right, Fillery-Noby on the left.
00:38:24
Speaker
The urban site along the Via Amorina persisted at least until the first half of the sixth century AD becoming a bishop bishopric in AD 465 and in the 12th century a monastic church of Santa Maria de Fileri was added and now represents the only standing structure on the side other than the ancient circuit walls. So there's been various
00:38:44
Speaker
GPR analysis, coring done by Ghent and Cambridge. You can read about that online, but research to date raises a number of questions about the city's relationship to settlement trends in the wider Tiber Valley, as well as about Flurry's own development. So the questions we're looking to answer during these excavations, which first started last year,
00:39:06
Speaker
What is the chronology of the city's infrastructure? What can be known about Fillary's last urban phases? And these excavations are hoping to tell us that. So GPR done by Ghent and Cambridge show obviously this massive city. The surrounding walls still stand today. Those are the walls. They're massive. Here's some more of the excavation. So McKellum was done by Harvard. Domus was done by Toronto. And the South Gate was done by the British School of Rome, which is the team I'm on.
00:39:36
Speaker
McCallum is a Roman meat market, basically. Then we have the Domus.
00:39:44
Speaker
Then we, the Domus had some pillars. So we found specifically at the South Gate, a late, late antique settlement. We don't have anything going down to the Republican period, which is kind of what we were hoping for. We found a secondary road. We found massive stones from the nearby amphitheater lining that road for raising the elevation of the room next to it. God knows why we don't. At the top left, we have flooring, pottery,
00:40:12
Speaker
burning, you name it, it's there. We also found inscriptions, inscribed stones. We have some nice African red slipware on the left, coins, grind mill stones and medallions and puppy paw prints. Woo, 10 minutes. Thank you Kelsey. We turn now to Yvette, whose title is a reassessment of copper smelting in the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age Aegean.
Copper Smelting in the Aegean
00:40:42
Speaker
So I don't remember what year of my PhD I'm in now. I started in 2014 as a part-time candidate. I'm now a staff candidate. Within that I've had about two and a half years of leave of absence to teach the department's experimental archaeology and metals modules then because the world fell apart and then more recently because I've had spinal surgery. So I'm actually back doing the PhD again and I intend to submit it before the department as we know it closes.
00:41:12
Speaker
So yeah, it's nice to kind of talk to you about it because as I said I've just started again so it's nice to kind of remind myself what I've been spending nearly 10 years doing and hopefully talk about it in 10 minutes. So I'm looking at copper reduction in the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age Aegean and a particular way that it's made so not just
00:41:33
Speaker
all copper production, but this particular type of evidence that represents a particular practice. So the pictures on the left are the archaeological evidence. So there's the evidence from the top left, which is from Kivnos, which is a thicker kind of variance of the ceramics, about two inches thick. It's got perforations. And then you get this kind of finer ceramic, which is two centimetres thick at the most with perforations.
00:41:59
Speaker
On the right hand side, you've got the kind of reconstruction from Betancourt of how these furnaces look. So the conical shaft furnace, about 45 centimeters high, and the main feature is these perforations. So you get these select sites in the Aegean. When I started this, there was about six sites, there's now 12, but in a specific area. So the reconstructions of
00:42:28
Speaker
these from other people kind of put a model of making copper onto them so basically they're ticking a box they're going there's ceramics there's vitrification there's there's copper oh they're making the smelting copper they must have done it like this where what i've done is done experimental archaeology to test a different method of smelting copper in these furnaces so i think there's a different practice going on
00:42:51
Speaker
in this specific area in the Aegean different to how they're doing it elsewhere and because this is around 6,000-4,000 BC at that time when it's the initial instigation and transmission of metallurgy, what does that mean about how metallurgy is passed on if they're doing it very differently in one little area?
00:43:18
Speaker
The method that everybody, everybody else, the widely accepted method is that these are powered by bellows. So there's a ceramic kind of pot that has material attached to it where it emits air.
00:43:36
Speaker
into the furnace via Toyare. So there's one site that has evidence of bellows, which is Chrysocamino, which is actually much more recent. So it's actually more than 3000 BC. And actually the picture on the left is all the evidence from that site of bellows. And I think that looks a lot like a cooking pot.
00:43:56
Speaker
The drawing in the middle is the reconstruction and the right hand side is an image from a tomb in Egypt where people are using bellows. So you can kind of see they kind of stood on them. Nothing that would work anywhere. So I think when people were initially finding these sites in the 90s, it was kind of like a tick bucket exercise. As I said, the ceramics, there's metallurgical debris. It's of smelting furnace. They must have used bellows.
00:44:23
Speaker
And so this is the only site out of 12 that has evidence for bellows. So remember that, I'll come back to it. So I've reconstructed these furnaces and I don't believe they're bellow driven, I believe they're natural wind furnaces. So because of the perforations, if you look at how perforations are used in pyrotechnology elsewhere,
00:44:45
Speaker
It creates, through the fluid dynamics, it creates different pressure regions, and just by the wind kind of blowing over them and around them, it sucks air into them. There's a number of different windblown furnaces, some are ecological, so Wadi for now and in places like that, some ethnographical like the Herakina, and they work basically by wind blowing across them in the different pressure regions.
00:45:10
Speaker
So I did experimental campaigns, which you can see. I looked at the evidence and it looks similar, but I also looked at it microscopically as well. So if I'm looking at the slag that comes out of these, the waste products, so basically everything in copper, that's not copper, produces like a glassy product. By looking at that under the microscope, you can see whether it was a reducing or oxidizing environment.
00:45:33
Speaker
And the slag from the archaeological sites has this banding where it's going from being reducing oxidising, reducing oxidising. And the other people who reconstruct this say that's due to the wind from the bellows. However, I know they didn't actually align. They said it's through tapping the furnaces. So by poking a hole in the side of the furnace, the slag runs out, it hits the air, it solidifies, that's how you get the banding. But I see that as one occurrence, so you'd get it once.
00:46:00
Speaker
When they've reconstructed it and tested it with bellows, you don't get that. When I've tested it with wind power, you get that banding because you're constantly getting air cool in the slag, more stuff drips on, you get it cooling again, you get that banding.
00:46:16
Speaker
So I guess because I'm saying they're making metallurgy differently in this area, at the same time it's supposedly being transmitted by travelling smiths. Why are they doing it very differently in this region and what does that mean? So I'm also putting a bit of thievery,
00:46:34
Speaker
into this and saying, what does this mean? So I don't know if I'm a bald as yet as to say I'm going to propose my own theory for the transmission of metallurgy as Venfu and child. I did sit down with Venfu over Uzo and talk about this and he said it was very interesting. But I'm maybe thinking there's
00:46:53
Speaker
independent reinvention. So people are seeing this process and they're perhaps using existing skills. So in some of the areas where we find these perforated metallurgical ceramics, we find other perforated pyrotechnical ceramics like bee smokers, incense burners, things you put on halves to make the half get hotter. So they're already using perforated ceramics and understand how it helps with that.
00:47:19
Speaker
So just to give you an idea, the kind of red circle is where a child saw the homeland from Metallurgy and it spread west across to Europe. Renfrew sees two homelands on multiple homelands from Metallurgy, so the green circles and the little blue circle near Sam's head is where these perforated furnaces are coming from.
00:47:42
Speaker
And because my maps are terrible, this is a map that Colin made for me. So you can see that it's not even across the whole of Greece and the Aegean, it's actually a very isolated area. So it's that kind of Athenian Peninsula, a couple of sites in the Cyclades, and then right down at the bottom there's a site on Crete, which is the one that's more recent.
00:48:10
Speaker
Sam's head again. So that was just a moment that I... So yeah, I reconstructed these furnaces, tested my methods, so I actually went to some of these sites, recorded wind speeds, replicated the wind speeds here with the structures, managed to smell copper,
00:48:30
Speaker
and analysed the slags. So you can kind of see that bandage, that kind of silver stripe going through the middle and the difference is either side. So there's this kind of clear change. It's not just a one instance of like tapping it, the slag hitting the air and kind of forming. It's laving up over time. I've also done XRF analysis to look at residue because I think there's actually
00:48:53
Speaker
more ceramic furnaces than have been identified, but they've been misidentified as cooking pots because if they're not highly fired and vitrified, they can't possibly be metallurgy. But actually some of the, you know, the high percentage copper bars can be smelted at much lower temperature.
00:49:09
Speaker
And then I'm not going to do an interpretive dance, but I did bring dancing into it. So, you know, if it's wind powered, there's time to dance. If it's bellow driven, you're doing a lot more work. So it just, I did that one.
00:49:26
Speaker
back when I was good at doing things on computers. So yeah, so kind of like, why would you put a lot of effort into doing something where you don't have to? I think we're not, we're inevitably kind of resourceful. And you know, there's no evidence for bellows apart from at one site. So I think the evidence that kind of maybe does suggest that the bellows and some of the things might be a refining stage. So it might be when they're
00:49:53
Speaker
um, crushing the kind of conglomerate stamp to get the pearls or when they're casting. Um, so yeah, my PhD is kind of redefining this evidence, proposing a new method and proposing this kind of re independent reinvention. Um,
00:50:16
Speaker
Thank you Yvette.
Radiographic Analysis of Mastoiditis
00:50:18
Speaker
Finally, we have for you Sam, whose title is Point and Shoot, a Radiographic Analysis of Mastoiditis in Archaeological Populations from England's North East.
00:50:29
Speaker
OK, so if you have taken my archaeological sciences course, I'm really sorry. You probably know a lot of this already. If, looking at this group over here, you're in my applied bioarchaeological science course, I'm really sorry. You're going to get this in a few weeks. But by the time we come to that, you'll have memorized everything and you'll be experts, right?
00:50:48
Speaker
Well, we're gonna test your memory of the human osteology and human anatomy in a few minutes so we'll see how we go. All right. It's okay, it's not on teeth. So I'm gonna talk to you a little bit about my PhD research and in many respects this is gonna be a memory test for myself too. How much can she remember? All right.
00:51:13
Speaker
Yes, that is the second slide. Good. Okay, so before we go any further, I have to talk to you a little bit about infection, specifically respiratory infection. So after COVID, you're all probably absolutely sick and tired of me talking about respiratory infection. And in that regards, I should probably give you a content warning. If you do not want to sit and listen to a talk on respiratory infection after COVID, I will not be offended if you do want to leave. That's totally fine. Similarly, we will be talking about human skeletal remains.
00:51:42
Speaker
you will rarely see photos of those in my presentations. So do not worry if that's not something you want to see today. That's totally fine. So to begin, when we're talking about the respiratory system, we have to consider more systems than the areas we usually think of. Usually we just think of the lungs and we're kind of done. But it's actually a very, very connected system. So we're going to start with your nasal cavity up at the top there. So that's
00:52:07
Speaker
breathing in through your nose or breathing in through your mouth. That's going now back to your nasopharynx which then goes down your pharynx and into your lungs. Now from your nose you also have a series of sinuses, your largest being your maxillary sinuses. So those are going to be right in the front of your face just below the orbits for your eyes.
00:52:28
Speaker
And then there's also this other area that a lot of people don't usually talk about of your temporal bone air cells. And this is where I'm looking at my human osteologists over in the corner here. Fingers up pointing to your mastoid processes for everybody, please.
00:52:44
Speaker
Thank you, excellent! So if you put your finger directly behind your ear and you will touch a bony bump, this is a muscle attachment site but it's also your mastoid process which is filled with air cells which are directly connected to your nasopharynx through a little tiny soft tissue tube called your eustachian tube. Now there's a series of air cells within here that are very very interesting to me at least and hopefully you by the end of my presentation but I will not be offended if you're not interested, you can always be interested in teeth.
00:53:17
Speaker
So let's talk a little bit more about mastoiditis. What are the mastoid processes? And when they get infected, you add the itis. On the end, you get mastoiditis. So the etiology, or where these come from, well, bacterial or viral infections is pretty much anything. Anything that's going to irritate these systems is going to cause mastoiditis. They're primarily infected by, well, primary infections or secondary infections. It's really anything.
00:53:37
Speaker
What a choice!
00:53:44
Speaker
absolutely anything that can annoy these systems, we consider mastoiditis. Now there are a few different complications that you can get along the way if you have mastoiditis, so it's not just the mastoiditis you have to worry about. You can get changes to the air cell walls, you can get abscesses through your mastoid process and then it comes down your sternocleidomastoid muscle which is delightful and then pools.
00:54:07
Speaker
in your chest cavity. You can also get fusion of your auditory ossicles which is going to mean you're going to eventually go deaf or you can end up with meningitis. The impact of all of this, well obviously discomfort and pain that's kind of going without saying,
00:54:22
Speaker
If you're a child and you get mastery data, you're also starting to talk about things like delayed speech acquisition and language acquisition. You can end up with blindness, deafness, or death because all these systems are so related to one another. And there's a few key risk factors for something like mastery data. Now, previous mastery data is a risk factor and we'll talk about why in a few minutes.
00:54:44
Speaker
Testosterone is a risk factor as it is with any other infection. Testosterone is an immunosuppressant. So to a certain extent, if you have higher testosterone, you're probably going to be more susceptible to an infection than someone who has lower testosterone. If you've been insufficiently breastfed, now the WHO
00:55:00
Speaker
and UNICEF actually set the bar very, very high. They go all the way to two years for breastfeeding to get the full amount of good effects that you can get from breastfeeding. So if you were breastfed for that long, congratulations. You are very, very healthy, I would imagine. Also, young age or exposure to non-adults is a huge risk factor. Anyone who is a parent in the room will know children because they have shallower breaths and immature
00:55:28
Speaker
respiratory systems are going to be catching respiratory infections more often and then they're also transmitting them more. Similarly, overcrowding, air pollution and cold weather can also be risk factors. So hey, if you live in the UK and it's winter time, you probably checked a lot of those boxes.
00:55:48
Speaker
All right, so there's a few current methods for studying mastoiditis. Now, in the clinical realm, we're mainly talking about X-ray or CT. That's what's going to happen to you if you go in, your doctor expects or suspects that you have mastoiditis. Now, if we're starting to talk about the archaeological sphere, we can do more fun and exciting things like cut your mastoid process open and have an actual look at it. So that's where we start to get into things like sectioning microscopy and endoscopy. But we can also start talking about X-ray
00:56:15
Speaker
and CT. But we have a lot of problems with these sorts of things, obviously. Well, the archaeological methods are very destructive. The other methods are very costly. They're also inaccessible. And all of these methods altogether are incomparable to one another. You can easily put one picture next to another, whoops, and say, hey, look at that.
00:56:35
Speaker
this is what's going on. So that's where I came along. I said, all right, we've got a problem. We've got a really interesting thing to study, but no one's really studying it. So what can we do? So in my master's research, I started looking at this question studying some hunter-fisher gatherers in Siberia.
00:56:51
Speaker
And I liked my method, but I wasn't completely happy with my method. I felt like there's more I wanted to do. So I came here because they had the handheld x-ray system that I wanted to work with, but hey, along came COVID. So my sample size of 2,000 individuals really got squashed down to 386.
00:57:06
Speaker
but it was still enough for me to explore my method better. So I'm starting to look at understanding or having a grounded and more clinical practice that's non-destructive and accessible that allowed me to compare two different populations from different areas.
00:57:23
Speaker
We're going to speed through that part, though, because we don't have too much time to talk about the populations. I want to talk to you more about the method. So I looked at the Blackgate population, which is a late Anglo-Saxon population from Newcastle upon Tyne and St. Hilda's Church population from South Shields, which is an industrial population. So as you can imagine, living in two very different environments, doing very, very different things.
00:57:47
Speaker
But enough about that, let's talk more about the technology. So here is our handheld x-ray system, which we need an upgrade for if you have a spare 10,000 pounds. Donations will be left in the hat at the end of the day. This is the system. It was designed for doing dental x-rays in your dentist's office, the idea being if it's handheld, it's more versatile and it's a little less intimidating than having the version that's mounted to the ceiling and having that come down at you.
00:58:15
Speaker
It also means you can take this into the field and you can use it forensically, for example. When I was in my masters or doing my masters, we looked at this and we said, you know what, we can use this for a variety of different things. Why don't we try shooting some mastery processes? So I had the fun job then of taking this into Russia and explaining to them that it was not a gun.
00:58:35
Speaker
is in fact an X-ray system. Luckily for me here, Colin had the fun job of coming in every day during the pandemic and letting me in so I could take X-rays. So here we have a few examples of what your mastoid process looks at various different stages. So on the left in the top, we have a healthy individual. So this is what we call a hypocellular mastoid processes. You'll notice all of the air cells are quite large. They're nice and open every time you breathe in.
00:59:04
Speaker
you're going to get some air going up through your station tube and it's going to aerate hopefully your middle ear which is then also aerating your mastoid air cells keeping everything nice and open happy and healthy pressurized the same as the outside air. Now if you end up
00:59:22
Speaker
with an infection before puberty because your air cells grow during puberty, then these air cells don't develop. You end up with stunted air cells and they look like the air cells in the bottom left. This is childhood mastoiditis.
00:59:38
Speaker
So this individual here ends up with this tiny, tiny air cell structure. And that's something that you can see even into adulthood. If you have childhood mastoiditis, your air cells never develop. And that's exciting for an archeologist because most things that happen in your childhood remodel in your skeleton throughout your life. But this is actually a permanent indicator of a disease that you can see all throughout the life course. Now, very quickly, if you pop up to the top right,
01:00:05
Speaker
This is what it looks like if you have adult mastoiditis. So we go from our healthy nice big air cells to air cells that are partially destroyed and then sometimes filled in with some periosteal bone growth. And down at the bottom we have an individual who had childhood mastoiditis and then ends up with an infection later in life. So we can take this life course approach.
01:00:26
Speaker
there's my timer perfect so whizzing through the very last things the significance of this is it's non-destructive it's accessible and it's diagnostic we can study someone's entire life history and it seems to be more accurate than the studies like maxillary sinusitis because maxillary sinusitis has to be chronic in order to affect the skeleton this can just be acute
01:00:50
Speaker
and lower respiratory infection, in which case things like tuberculosis only affect the skeleton in 8%. So this is a really interesting thing to study because it tells us a lot. We can explore themes like occupation, housing, nutrition, social status, and class, which I did during my thesis, but we're not talking about the people. We're talking about the method. So future research because, you know, COVID happened. There were a few things I couldn't do. Hopefully I'm going to start doing a replication study. We can show that it's not just me who can use this. Other people can use it too.
01:01:20
Speaker
We can continue the CT study I started, but only got the chance to scan two individuals, but behold, things on the screen and that's as far as it got. And then hopefully more collaboration. So plenty to do. Hopefully the department sticks around long enough for good things like this to happen. Excellent.
01:01:46
Speaker
Thank you for listening to Archeology in Ale. For more information about our podcast and guest speakers, please visit our page on the Archeology Podcast Network. You can get in touch with us at Archeology in the City on Facebook, WordPress, Instagram, or Twitter. If you have any questions or comments, we'd love to hear from you. Next month, our talk is by Chris Atkinson, as entitled, Exploring Wadsley and Locksley Common, Community Investigation as Part of the Sheffield Lakeland Landscapes. We hope you join us. Thank you.
01:02:23
Speaker
This episode was produced by Chris Webster from his RV traveling the United States, Tristan Boyle in Scotland, DigTech LLC, Cultural Media, and the Archaeology Podcast Network, and was edited by Chris Webster. This has been a presentation of the Archaeology Podcast Network. Visit us on the web for show notes and other podcasts at www.archpodnet.com. Contact us at chrisatarchaeologypodcastnetwork.com.