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Uncovering the Secrets of the Pyramids - TPM 03
310 Plays11 hours ago
Uncover the engineering marvels behind Egypt’s iconic pyramids and new archaeological findings about their construction. Explore unfinished Third Dynasty pyramids, Sneferu's architectural experimentations, and the wonder that is the Great Pyramid of Khufu. Learn about the pyramid towns that supported a large, skilled workforce and harbors that were part of the extensive transport network required to move materials. This episode sheds light on how the process of constructing massive monuments for the dead led to technological innovations and shaped the lives of ancient Egyptians.
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Transcript
00:00:01
Speaker
You're listening to the Archaeology Podcast Network.
00:00:28
Speaker
Welcome to the past macabre, where we journey through history to uncover how our relationship with death reflects the values, fears, and hopes that shape the way people live. I'm your host, Stephanie Rice, and thank you for joining me for episode three, Uncovering the Secrets of the Pyramids.
00:00:47
Speaker
In episode one and two, we explored the early funerary architecture that laid the foundations for Egypt's pyramids. In this episode, we delve into the fascinating new discoveries that shed light on the construction, organization, and life around these awe-inspiring burial monuments.
00:01:07
Speaker
So far, 118 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt. Each one is a testament to the ingenuity and ambition of humanity. But how were these massive monuments really built? Every year, new archaeological evidence reveals more and more about the construction process. Let's explore what it took to construct these marvels of engineering and how the process of building these monuments for death impacted life in ancient Egypt.
00:01:39
Speaker
The pyramids of Egypt that we see today are the culmination of hundreds of years of evolving funerary practices. In the previous two episodes, we explored the earliest large-scale funerary complexes that were constructed, around 3600 BCE at Neckin. And then we saw the elaborate wall paintings that began to adorn tombs there by 3400 BCE.
00:02:05
Speaker
We ventured into the Nile Delta to see the recently found mastabas at Tel El Fercha that began reaching towards the sky around the same time period. We saw evidence of funerary cults dedicated to maintaining a king's tomb and the ongoing offerings for his afterlife that started around 3200 BCE at Abydos. We saw the tombs at Saqqara from around 3100 BCE that began including intricate models of their estates. These would provide for the deceased ruler and his subjects for eternity.
00:02:39
Speaker
We also explored the evolution of tomb architecture as rulers and elites began incorporating different combinations of these elements into increasingly elaborate designs over several centuries. Then we saw the major shift that occurred around 2800 BCE when builders at Saqqara began carving out complex subterranean chambers into the bedrock instead of the pits in the sand that were reinforced and divided into rooms by mud brick walls.
00:03:09
Speaker
And then we saw these techniques all culminate around 2700 BCE in the construction of the very first pyramid in Egypt. Designed by the legendary architect Imhotep, the steppe pyramid of Djoser still stands today. Djoser was the first ruler of the Third Dynasty and he laid the foundations for Egypt's pyramid building legacy.
00:03:34
Speaker
Though the Third Dynasty lasted only about 75 years, this era saw the first steps toward perfecting pyramid construction. Joseph's step pyramid started as a large mastaba, like those of his predecessors, and it transformed through several phases into the extraordinary monument it became.
00:03:55
Speaker
Pyramid design transformed in several phases as well, and didn't just jump from the Step Pyramid to the Great Pyramid of Khufu. It incrementally improved, and we actually have the archaeological evidence for these incremental changes that we can study. The first pyramid we'll look at was started for Joseph's successor, who was named Sekimkep. He began a pyramid of his own at Sakara, just southwest of the Step Pyramid.
00:04:23
Speaker
It's known today as the Buried Pyramid, and Second Cut's monument was never completed. This is most likely due to the fact that he only lived terrain for six short years.
00:04:36
Speaker
Despite its unfinished state, the intended grandeur is still evident. It was designed from the start to be a pyramid with a perfectly square base, instead of the rectangular base that the Step Pyramid ended up with after its various iterations. Judging by the size of its base, archaeologists have determined that it likely would have had one more tier to it than the Step Pyramid, if it had been completed.
00:04:59
Speaker
The subterranean part of the pyramid was almost entirely completed, and this includes a large U-shaped hallway that surrounded the northern half of the pyramid's base. There were 132 storage rooms that lined it for Sechimket's burial goods.
00:05:15
Speaker
His burial chamber was found beneath the pyramid with a large, beautiful alabaster sarcophagus inside. But there's no evidence that Sekimket was actually buried here. This is most likely due to his untimely death, and just like the unfinished state of his pyramid. So far, no evidence of Sekimket's true burial has been found, leaving behind an ancient unsolved mystery for us.
00:05:41
Speaker
Since the construction on this pyramid was still unfinished, several markings left to identify materials or guide the builders are still visible on the stones around the complex. One of these is a stone on the outer wall, and it has the name Imhotep. Evidence that the man who designed this step pyramid was likely still lead architect during this construction. Imhotep appears to have been the engineer who continued the advancement of pyramid architecture in these early years, building upon his previous design.
00:06:13
Speaker
Not long after Second Cut's pyramid was abandoned, a new necropolis was established for the elite of the capital of Minnefer or Memphis. It's about seven kilometers or four miles to the north of Saqqara in an area now known as Zawiet El-Arian. Amongst several impressively huge mastabas that were built by the most influential Egyptians of the time, two pyramids were started here but left unfinished.
00:06:41
Speaker
They date to the Third Dynasty, and the first of these is called the Layer Pyramid. It may have belonged to the pharaoh named Khaba, who ruled towards the end of the Third Dynasty based on the few artifacts that were found nearby, but not within the pyramid itself.
00:06:57
Speaker
The portions of the pyramid complex that were completed were almost an exact copy of Sekamkhet's, but there's no markings to confirm if Imhotep was involved or if his plans were just utilized by his successor. Unlike Sekamkhet's pyramid, the subterranean features weren't completed here at the lair pyramid and the burial chamber did not yet have a sarcophagus in it. Again, probably due to another short reign by the king who commissioned the lair pyramid.
00:07:27
Speaker
The Second Pyramid at Zawiyat el-Aryan is known as the Northern Pyramid. It's unclear who it belonged to, but some archaeologists think that it may have been intended for Nebka, another ruler that we know very little about, from the Third Dynasty. Even less of it was completed than the Lair Pyramid or Second Cuts, but the burial chamber and stairway to it were. Within the burial chamber was an impressive sarcophagus carved out of a massive block of pink granite.
00:07:56
Speaker
Based on what we know of granite sources at the time, this was probably brought all the way from Aswan, 750 kilometers or about 466 miles to the south of this site. As with most goods in ancient Egypt, it would have been moved using boats on the Nile. And then there's a shallow valley, also known as Awadi in Arabic, that's near the pyramid site here that would have flooded during the Nile's inundation period.
00:08:25
Speaker
This would have made it easy to move the granite block using a cargo barge on the water and get it very close to the pyramid site. I'm not sure how long it would have taken to move the granite from Aswan to this pyramid back then, but today you can travel from Aswan to Cairo by taking a four-day Nile river cruise if you ever wanted to travel the same journey. The most curious thing about the granite sarcophagus wasn't the distance that it traveled, but that the interior was carved in an oval shape.
00:08:53
Speaker
Most stone sarcophagi found throughout Egypt's history were carved with a rectangular interior. Researchers think that this one may have been an intentional symbolic homage to the very early pre-dynastic pit burials that were oval shaped, long before the funerary structures we talked about in the very first episode.
00:09:14
Speaker
This was another way that the King could have been intentionally trying to connect himself eternally to the powerful leaders of the past, just like what we've seen with art and architectural features.
00:09:28
Speaker
Unfortunately, we know very little about these monuments as the site was closed off to the public in 1964, when a military base was constructed over it. Very little had been done on excavations up until that point, though we do have several sketches of what was found and excavated of the structures. Several of the mastabas were removed from this area, and it's been reported that the remains of the two pyramids may have been heavily damaged, including the subterranean sections.
00:09:57
Speaker
Further exploration of these unfinished pyramids could have provided invaluable information on the transition and burial architecture, but now they remain shrouded in mystery hidden beneath layers of modern day restrictions. The Pyramid of Second Cut, the Layer Pyramid, and the Northern Pyramid might not have been finished, but they provide us with valuable insights into the architectural advancements that continued through the Third Dynasty.
00:10:23
Speaker
Despite the short reigns of so many kings of the Third Dynasty and the lack of information about them, all of the evidence found so far points to it being a time of peace, favorable Nile conditions that led to abundant harvests, and prosperity in trade endeavors with their neighbors.
00:10:40
Speaker
This paved the way for pyramid building to reach its golden age in the fourth dynasty. The kings of this dynasty harnessed the immense resources and workforce that was at their disposal to create some of Egypt's most iconic structures. Around 2600 BCE, Sneferu founded the fourth dynasty. He was an architectural innovator who advanced pyramid construction by experimenting with different techniques.
00:11:09
Speaker
Over the course of his reign, he constructed not one, but three pyramids, each representing a critical step forward in the development of pyramid design. One of these was the Pyramid of Maidum.
00:11:22
Speaker
Interestingly, Medume is far from the capital and the previous royal burials. It's located about 65 kilometers, or 40 miles, south of Saqqara, near the Fayyum Oasis. It's possible that this was intended to be a cenotath, similar to the Dynasty I rulers like Mernath, who had impressive tombs built as Saqqara near the new capital, but they were still buried in tombs near their ancestors at Abidos.
00:11:47
Speaker
The Fayyum Oasis is a very fertile, fairly large patch of wetland formed by a branch of the Nile that flows into a basin. The oldest evidence of agriculture in Egypt has been found here, dating back to 5350 BCE, over 7000 years ago, and it was an important source of food and fresh water throughout Egypt's history.
00:12:10
Speaker
It's possible the location of the Pyramid of Medume was chosen as a way to recognize this importance and show the King's influence over this region. As we've seen in many of the tombs explored in the previous two episodes, the location of tombs was a way to symbolize power as much as art or artifacts were. Visiting the Pyramid of Medume today, we see just the core surrounded by a massive mound of debris. This used to be the exterior of the original pyramid.
00:12:40
Speaker
At one point, this was actually a steppe pyramid, and it was larger and wider. The pyramid may have been started by the last king of the Third Dynasty, Huni, based on the evidence of two distinct construction phases using different masonry techniques that have been found here.
00:12:58
Speaker
The pyramid at Maidum most likely stood as a complete monument for quite some time fairly early on in Sneferu's reign. This is indicated by the tombs of elites and relatives of Sneferu that died before him but were built nearby. Archaeologists have found writing on some of the stones at Maidum that indicate Sneferu's mother, Marisankh, was buried here in one of the mastabas very close to this pyramid.
00:13:23
Speaker
Based on patterns seen at other cemeteries, it's likely they built their tombs here because of the presence of a king's monument, not the other way around. The reason archaeologists previously thought that this belonged to Sneferu is because of about 3,000 stone blocks that were found nearby. They were intended for the pyramid very clearly, and there are date markings on them, likely indicating the shipment or delivery dates of the stones that date to a period of five to eight years over Sneferu's reign. But more research has uncovered that most likely Sneferu attempted to update his predecessor's design, potentially as a sign of reverence, by adding smooth casing stones.
00:14:03
Speaker
This was something that hadn't previously been done on pyramids, but his builders had developed it for his two pyramids at Dashur. Unfortunately, this change placed too much weight on the original structure since it wasn't originally designed for it. This caused the outer layers to collapse and leave behind only the core and pile of rubble that we see today.
00:14:23
Speaker
At Dashur, a necropolis that's approximately 17 kilometers or 10.5 miles south of Saqqara, Sneferu built the two pyramids we know today as the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid. The majority of this necropolis was used in the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties, with some reuse later in the Twelfth Dynasty.
00:14:44
Speaker
However, in 1990, previously unknown third dynasty burial chambers were discovered beneath the fourth and fifth dynasty tombs. Within two of them were alabaster sarcophagi like the one found at the steppe pyramid of Djoser. Unfortunately, there were signs of previous looting and more research still has to be done on what remains of the burial chambers to find more clues.
00:15:08
Speaker
But there is a chance that they were the actual burials of the mysterious Third Dynasty rulers who started the unfinished pyramids.
00:15:18
Speaker
This place may have been chosen by Sneferu for the location of the Bent Pyramid, sorry, I'm going to restart that. This place may have been chosen by Sneferu for the location of the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid because of its connection to rulers of the past, similar to his project to complete the Maidum Pyramid. Based on evidence uncovered from the late 80s through the early 2000s, these pyramids may have been designed as a symbolic pair and built at the same time.
00:15:45
Speaker
Tombs of the elites buried from this time show that they held titles like Overseer of Sneferu's Two Pyramids, which rise in splendor. This reinforces the idea that the monuments were conceived as complementary structures instead of the Red Pyramid being built after completing and learning from the Bent Pyramid. Some Egyptologists have recently theorized that these pyramids symbolized Egypt's unification.
00:16:10
Speaker
with the Bent Pyramid representing the White Crown of Upper Egypt and the Red Pyramid representing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt. Some Egyptologists have recently theorized that these pyramids symbolized Egypt's unification. The Bent Pyramid could represent the White Crown of Upper Egypt and the Red Pyramid representing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt. The Bent Pyramid was encased in the high-quality white limestone from the quarries that were typically used for royal monuments.
00:16:38
Speaker
It stands to the south towards Upper Egypt, and it features an unusual shape that scholars previously interpreted as a design flaw. However, newer research suggests that the bent shape was intentional, possibly mimicking the distinctive shape of the white crown of Upper Egypt.
00:16:56
Speaker
The casing stones were placed after the main structure was completed. The alleged miscalculation would have been already evident, but a great deal of effort was still taken to quarry, ship, place, and shape the casing stones to complete the structure. Then the Red Pyramid is constructed with reddish, heavily oxidized limestone, despite the obvious access to higher quality limestone. It's located north towards Lower Egypt.
00:17:24
Speaker
It's got a more shallow angle than most other pyramids, which gives it a more stout look. This could symbolize the red crown of Lower Egypt, which was shorter and wider than the white crown and rested below it, and it didn't have the same cone-like shape. The ancient names of the two pyramids further support the idea of their intended duality. The name for the bent pyramid translates to Sneferu Shines in the South, and the name for the red pyramid translates to Sneferu Shines.
00:17:54
Speaker
If the Red Pyramid was built last, it would seem more likely that it would have the direction distinguished in its name instead of the Bent Pyramid. But no matter which order they were built in, the Red Pyramid became the first successful example of what archaeologists call a true pyramid, which is a structure with smooth sides from base to peak. This paved the way for the great pyramid that would follow during the rule of Sneferu's son, Khufu.
00:18:22
Speaker
all thanks to Sneferu's ambition and experiments in pyramid design in order to build eternal symbols of his reign over the two lands. We've now reached the culmination of our ancient architectural journey, the Great Pyramid of Khufu.
00:18:41
Speaker
Built during Khufu's reign in the Fourth Dynasty and finished around 2580 BCE, this pyramid has fascinated travelers and scholars alike for over 4600 years. It was built to be a grand display of Khufu's power and his connection to Egypt for eternity.
00:19:02
Speaker
It once rose to a height of 146.5 meters or 481 feet. This made it the tallest man-made structure in the world for nearly 4,000 years.
00:19:16
Speaker
The removal of the cover stones of the pyramid and the weathering over centuries that it has experienced has reduced the height, but it still towers over the Giza plateau. It's no surprise that such an impressive and ancient structure like the Great Pyramid is surrounded by mysteries. One of many that has taken root in popular imagination and sparked quite a few theories is the pyramid's lack of artwork or inscriptions.
00:19:44
Speaker
While this seems weird for such a grand tomb, it was actually the norm for tombs of this time period. This is part of what makes it so difficult to identify the owners of so many tombs that date to the late 3rd and early 4th dynasties. They intended for their tombs to be sealed off for eternity from any visitors and therefore also would be looters.
00:20:07
Speaker
But Khufu still adorned the rest of his mortuary complex with beautiful art on the courtyard walls and his funerary temples. These were intended to be visible to the elites, priests, and royals who would have access to the complex to pay their respects to Khufu, but they wouldn't have access to the inside of the tomb itself.
00:20:27
Speaker
Today, only the Black Basalt paving stones remain of the grand funerary temple that once stood next to Khufu's pyramid. But stones from later Middle Kingdom structures that were scavenged from this site still bear parts of the intricate reliefs that once decorated the walls around Khufu's funerary temple.
00:20:45
Speaker
Some of the best preserved of these reliefs depicted scenes of Khufu's said Jubilee. This was a festival meant to celebrate the king's 30th year on the throne. Unfortunately, Khufu died after 27 years of rule, a fact that's been confirmed by papyri that were discovered in 2013. These reliefs, however, were still completed and they ensured that he would still have his said festival in the afterlife.
00:21:12
Speaker
This is an example of how the ancient Egyptians viewed death as the continuation of life, not an end. How the Great Pyramid was built is another prominent mystery that has contributed to several myths. Luckily for us, we do have some evidence already that reveals the techniques that were most likely used. This may not give us a definitive answer yet, but more is being discovered each year through many international projects, and they are filling in the gaps in our knowledge.
00:21:44
Speaker
Subtle clues about its construction have already been found that were preserved within Khufu's pyramid itself. We have this evidence today thanks to the rush to complete the pyramid in time for Khufu to be buried here. In some of the rooms within the pyramid, the granite blocks still bear lifting bosses. These are small bumps on the stone left by masons to maneuver them into place.
00:22:08
Speaker
These bosses are usually smoothed away once the stones are in place and the construction is completed, but here they remain to confirm that this method was used. There are also several stones within the pyramid that bear leveling lines and scrawled names of labor teams, echoes of the workforce that toiled to raise this wonder thousands of years ago.
00:22:31
Speaker
There is even evidence that a mechanism called a winch was used. A modern example of one would be a mechanism that stores the cable on tow trucks. This allowed just four workers to easily maneuver the large 2.5 ton granite blocks that were meant to seal Kufu's mummy away for eternity.
00:22:51
Speaker
Another curiosity is the fact that Khufu's original subterranean burial chamber lies unfinished beneath the pyramid. The most likely answer is fairly boring, but it was probably abandoned due to his death. Instead, his sarcophagus was placed in the upper chamber, now known as the king's chamber, that was most likely originally meant to store additional grave goods.
00:23:14
Speaker
Just outside of the king's chamber we see evidence that winches were used at the entrance that was sealed with massive granite b blocks. The stone walls to the side of these blocks have semicircular grooves in them where a large rounded wooden beam would be able to rest. Workers would have secured the granite stones with ropes and then attached those ropes to the beams then rolled the beam so that the rope wound around it.
00:23:40
Speaker
These winches make it much easier to move heavy objects. Unfortunately, the space used for the wooden rollers left a small gap that allowed intruders to crawl above the stones that were protecting the king. They smashed through the ceiling and into the burial room. By the time the Great Pyramid was excavated by archaeologists, looters had long since breached the tomb and taken Khufu's mummy and most of his burial goods.
00:24:08
Speaker
Khufu's granite sarcophagus, which was carved from a single massive block, was broken during this robbery, and its lid was completely removed. Whoever emptied it left behind only marks of destruction. How the Great Pyramid was constructed to its grand height has also been heavily debated for over a century. Most archaeologists agree that ramps were likely used during the building process to efficiently move heavy stones as the pyramid rose.
00:24:36
Speaker
Such techniques have even been confirmed at other sites, like Karnak Temple, which still has the remnants of a mudbrick ramp near one of the unfinished pylons. However, the configuration of the ramps has been the point of disagreement. I won't go into the details of every theory because we would be here for quite a while, but instead I'm going to share one of the latest that many researchers have begun to agree on.
00:25:00
Speaker
Based on new research and the help of 3D modeling done by an architect, archaeologists think that a fairly long ramp was made out of limestone blocks that were meant for the final stage of the pyramid. This allowed them to build roughly the bottom 49 meters or about 160 feet of the pyramid. Then as the pyramid was built, a spiral ramp was built along the interior walls.
00:25:25
Speaker
The exterior ramp was then dismantled once it was no longer needed and the limestone was used to build the upper part of the pyramid. This was accessed by using the interior ramp. There are two likely options for the tool used to help with maneuvering blocks around the corners of this interior ramp since they would have been at 90 degree angles just like the corners of the pyramid.
00:25:47
Speaker
either winches like the ones used to seal the king's chamber, or a large crane-like mechanism called a shadoof would have been used. We've seen evidence of the winches here at the pyramid site already. As for the shadoof, we know that they were used in ancient Egypt to move water from the Nile based on tomb paintings, but they were typically made of wood and aren't preserved well.
00:26:12
Speaker
Chadoof are long poles with a container attached to one end with a rope and the other end has a counterbalance tied to it, which was usually a stone. Like a seesaw, the poles balanced on a frame and then the container was lowered by the operator into the water. When it was filled, the operator would let go and the counterbalance would lift back up. This would pull the bucket up out of the water.
00:26:40
Speaker
As for where they would have rested on the pyramids when they were in use, there is a notch in the stones on the northeast corner of the pyramid almost halfway to the top. It was previously assumed that this notch was left during the theft of the cover stones on the pyramid, but now researchers have begun to look at it more closely. Whichever lifting mechanism was used could have been set up here and at similar notches yet to be uncovered.
00:27:06
Speaker
The space here has plenty of room for setting up the mechanism, lifting, and then turning large stone blocks. It was at a corner where this would have been needed, and its position halfway up the pyramid aligns with the models of the level an interior ramp would need to be at on this side of the wall when taking into account what we already know about the interior structure of the pyramid.
00:27:29
Speaker
To add to this evidence, in 2008, a hall or long room was discovered behind the notch. This hadn't previously been documented by archaeologists, but historic graffiti inside has a date of 1845. Clearly, at some point in the 19th century, someone had made the climb up, but either they were not with any archaeological expedition or they deemed it so insignificant, it was not worth noting.
00:27:56
Speaker
Armed with all of the data we now have, archaeologists think that this was specifically designed so that the massive stone blocks could be moved to fill the notch left behind by the cranes. This is based on the size of the room and the fact that it's in an L shape and where it's located and how it was sealed. It's amazing the things that you can discover by looking at the very little details of the masonry on these monuments.
00:28:22
Speaker
After this discovery, researchers began using various non-destructive ways to search the pyramid for similar notches and rooms that have yet to be uncovered. This led to the launch of the Scan Pyramids Project in 2015. This found several so-called voids, for lack of a better term, and the mysterious corridor that made the news in 2023.
00:28:44
Speaker
Research is still being done to understand the Great Pyramid better and piece together all of this new evidence that modern technology has enabled us to gather without damaging the pyramid. Another mystery surrounding the pyramid is who built it? The Greek historian Herodotus suggests that the pyramid was built by an army of 100,000 slaves. Even though he wrote this based on speculation, 2,000 years after the Great Pyramid was built, his myth has persisted into modern times.
00:29:14
Speaker
But archaeological evidence tells a very different story. The construction of the Great Pyramid was a logistical and organizational marvel built by a skilled workforce of tens of thousands of people that were organized into rotating labor teams. There is archaeological evidence that from at least the Third Dynasty, the workers who built all of the funerary monuments across Egypt were well-fed and housed in purpose-built towns.
00:29:41
Speaker
Many workers only came to work seasonally, and then they returned home to their families and their day-to-day lives. The Great Pyramid was a well-planned project that began early on in Khufu's reign and lasted for most of the 27 years that he ruled. We have evidence of this thanks to papyri found only recently in 2013 that have dates that show workers were still actively transporting blocks to the pyramid site into the final years of Khufu's reign.
00:30:09
Speaker
Pyramid Building was a massive state project supported by an organizational workforce that functioned very well during the Fourth Dynasty. Farmers, artisans, and skilled laborers were conscripted for periods of time, often as part of their tax obligations according to later royal decrees we found, in order to bring the massive workforce that was required to build these monuments.
00:30:34
Speaker
The settlements that were built to house and feed this vast workforce were known by a term that translates to pyramid towns. In several wall carvings and texts, these towns were labeled with the hieroglyph for town, Nyut, which looks like an X in a circle, and then the pyramid hieroglyph was listed after it, indicated that they were intentionally differentiated from regular towns in ancient times as well. One of these pyramid towns located near the Great Pyramid offers us a fantastic glimpse into the daily lives of those who built Khufu's monument.
00:31:08
Speaker
Today, it is known as Haight el Ghurap, or Wall of the Crow, because of the massive limestone wall that still stands today. This originally separated the Pyramid Town from the Necropolis, creating a distinct division between the workers and the elite.
00:31:25
Speaker
Hight El-Gurab was home to a seasonally rotating workforce that averaged to about 10,000 people at a time, with a smaller permanent population of around 5,000. The town had everything necessary to sustain life, pottery kilns, bakeries, breweries even, and barracks-style housing for the workers. There were larger homes for supervisors, administrative buildings, and even a sprawling cemetery for the residents who had passed away during the construction.
00:31:56
Speaker
These burials provide us with further evidence of how the workers were treated. They weren't sacrifices as seen in the first dynasty. Most died of natural causes or household accidents as they went about their lives here. There isn't evidence that they were worked to death or malnourished like you would expect to see with forced labor. Hundreds of tombs have been identified so far and it's estimated that there are hundreds more.
00:32:20
Speaker
Forensic studies of the bodies found in the more modest tombs show signs of tough physical labor for most of their lives, while the tombs that are more elaborate tend to show less signs of the physical labor. There were also deposits of large amounts of animal bones that were found with clear evidence that they were sources of food. Archaeologists have calculated that an average of 11 cows and 37 goats or sheep were needed each day to feed the workers of Hight el-Gurab.
00:32:49
Speaker
This is based on the amount of animal remains that were found here and by calculating how much protein an average human needs per day in order to sustainably perform hard labor. The Western Desert would not have had the amount of suitable land for grazing that would have been needed to keep herds of that size. So far, the only definitive evidence of livestock being kept here was a corral that has been found.
00:33:13
Speaker
This corral could likely only handle about 50 cattle for long-term grazing, but it could hold up to 500 cattle for a short time. This tells us that the king was moving large amounts of cows, sheeps, and goats here to provide good quality proteins for the people here.
00:33:30
Speaker
Building a pyramid required more than just construction labor and on-site support. It requires materials from across Egypt, the infrastructure to bring them together, and a large workforce to support the supply chain. In 2008, an Old Kingdom Harbor complex was rediscovered that we now call Wadi al-Jarf. This harbor has provided invaluable insight into the logistics of pyramid building and engineering innovations.
00:33:59
Speaker
It's located along the Red Sea coast, and it played a crucial role in rapidly moving resources from the Sinai Peninsula by sea. This avoided the much longer overland routes. The tools used to build the Great Pyramid were most likely made of copper that came through this very harbor, as that was one of the most common things mined on the Sinai Peninsula during this period. The harbor at Wadi Aljarf was founded by Sneferu, which makes it the oldest artificial harbor in the world.
00:34:30
Speaker
This artificial harbor was a major innovation in transportation techniques since it meant that shipping was no longer dependent on finding a natural feature, like a reef or a lagoon, in order to anchor in calm waters that were needed to load up large quantities of heavy cargo. Archaeologists have uncovered 22 anchors that still remain within the harbor itself, even after centuries of ocean currents, storms, and beach combers.
00:34:56
Speaker
An additional 99 anchors were found in storage within the large complex.
00:35:03
Speaker
This many anchors provide convincing evidence of the site's heavy usage. Some of the anchors in storage still bear hieroglyphs written in ink, likely identifying the boats that they were meant for. And this offers us glimpses of the individuals who navigated these waters to deliver their precious cargo.
00:35:23
Speaker
In order to move goods to and from this harbor site, an overland transportation route across the eastern desert would have been established. Archaeologists, including myself, are still working to piece together these overland routes, both here and at other ancient Egyptian Red Sea harbors. My current research is focused on studying baskets, ropes, nets, and mats to learn more about the overland route between the Nile and a different Red Sea harbor that's far to the south and from a later period.
00:35:53
Speaker
From what we know, after these overland routes, the goods from the Red Sea Harbors would arrive at the Nile and then they were shipped on cargo barges along the river until they reached the port that was closest to their final destination. Then, depending on the material and where it was going, it was either unloaded right at the site that needed it or moved to another overland route so that it could reach its final destination.
00:36:19
Speaker
This harbor complex stretches approximately six kilometers from the foothills of the Eastern Desert to the Red Sea shoreline, and it provides us with a view into what port towns of the Old Kingdom were like. It had a temporary housing area for sailors and workers traveling through the port and more permanent homes for the officials who managed the docks. There was even a pottery kiln where the massive jars that were used for shipping goods were made.
00:36:45
Speaker
There were over 30 storage rooms carved directly into the limestone hills near a freshwater spring at Wadi El Jarf. These rooms were used to house equipment, boat parts, and supplies for the ships and crews that were working the harbor. Here, archaeologists unearthed an extraordinary cache of papyri in 2013.
00:37:08
Speaker
the oldest inscribed papyri ever discovered in Egypt, because these can be dated undeniably to the reign of Khufu. These texts were written in the hieratic script, which is a simplified form of hieroglyphs that's used for administration tasks. During this time, most people were not taught to read or write. It was very limited to the members of the royal family, overseers, administrators, and priests.
00:37:39
Speaker
This hieratic script was used by these people in order to quickly jot down notes instead of the incredibly difficult and tedious task of cleanly writing out each hieroglyph. One of the most remarkable finds amongst these papyri is the Log Book of Meraire. It's a collection of papyri that details some very precise logistics of pyramid construction.
00:38:05
Speaker
Marrere was an overseer of 200 men, and he meticulously recorded the transportation of massive limestone blocks from the Tura quarries to the construction site for Khufu's pyramid at Giza. While Wadi al-Jarf itself was not part of the direct limestone supply chain for the pyramid, the papyri indicate that copper used for tools came through this port from the Sinai Peninsula, and Marrere oversaw its shipment as well.
00:38:33
Speaker
These tools were essential for shaping the stone blocks used to build the monumental structure. In addition to the confirmation of materials, the logbook of Moreira provided the name of a previously unknown and yet to be located administrative center along the Nile. This is where the materials went through for processing as they were moved over to the pyramid site.
00:38:56
Speaker
A find like this can help archaeologists uncover new sites that will add to our understanding of how the pyramids were built. If we can find this administrative center, perhaps we can find even more evidence of exactly how the pyramid was built. At the end of Khufu's reign, which was likely around the completion of the Great Pyramid, Wadi al-Jarf was decommissioned.
00:39:20
Speaker
The boats that had once varied critical supplies were carefully disassembled and then stored in the harbor's limestone storerooms. In a clearly intentional act of preservation, the storerooms were sealed shut with large limestone blocks and then further protected with clay mortar that sealed the edges to guard against moisture.
00:39:40
Speaker
This deliberate closure underscores the strategic importance of the port during its active years and shows that it was intended to be used again later. Otherwise, they would have just taken the materials with them or not gone to so many efforts to seal them up to be protected. The evidence does show it was only partially reused during later periods, but never again to its full capacity.
00:40:06
Speaker
The research at Wadi al-Jarf, Haid al-Gurab, and other sites like them show us the meticulous planning involved in every stage of pyramid construction, from gathering the materials to building the monument itself. Essentially, a massive economy was centered around the funerary monuments.
00:40:27
Speaker
The Pyramid Town supported tens of thousands of seasonal workers, thousands to manage those workers, and thousands more to supply the workforce with food, tools, and everyday goods. Then there was the vast network of ports, ships, administrative centers, overland routes, mines, quarries, and so much more that was needed to acquire and move materials.
00:40:54
Speaker
Pyramids and the other grand funerary monuments of ancient Egypt were only possible through the combined efforts of tens of thousands of people all working towards the same monumental goal. It may even be likely that Herodotus wasn't too far off with his estimation of 100,000, though they weren't slaves.
00:41:14
Speaker
They were the farmers, bakers, artisans, and others who paid their taxes and supported their families by working each year over decades on the grand monuments that we admire today. The Great Pyramid, much like the unfinished monuments of Sechemkhet, Khaba, and Nebka, reflects not only the ambition of Egypt's kings, but also the realities of time, death, and human limitations.
00:41:42
Speaker
but even in their rush to complete these colossal tombs, they left behind marbles that have endured for centuries. After Khufus, pyramids continued to be built by ancient Egyptian rulers until the 18th dynasty, over 1100 years after the steppe pyramid was built. Though they were built with less and less frequency than during the golden age of pyramid building that was the fourth dynasty.
00:42:10
Speaker
Now this is the end of our journey through ancient Egyptian tombs as they evolved over time, for now. I could spend a year's worth of episodes diving into the centuries of burial monuments that reflected the ways Egyptian rulers tried to immortalize themselves in stone. Instead, we'll spend some time exploring different regions and different time periods in our upcoming episodes.
00:42:34
Speaker
In the next episode, join me for a journey into the Emerald Hills and valleys of Ireland, where it's believed the veil between life and death is especially thin around this time of year. We'll look at the Neolithic passage tombs, Iron Age ring forts, and the goddesses of ancient Ireland that are tied to the origins of Halloween. Until next time.
00:43:03
Speaker
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00:43:30
Speaker
You can find show notes for this and other episodes at arcpodnet.com slash TPM and follow pastmccobb on Instagram. That's P-A-S-T underscore M-A-C-A-B-R-E. You'll find pictures of the sites and artifacts discussed, Q and&A sessions and episode topic votes. Hope to see you there.
00:44:05
Speaker
episode was produced by Chris Webster from his ah RV traveling the United States, Tristan Boyle in Scotland, DigTech LLC, Cultural Media, and the Archaeology Podcast Network, and was edited by Rachel Rodin. This has been a presentation of the Archaeology Podcast Network. Visit us on the web for show notes and other podcasts at www.archapodnet.com. Contact us at chrisatarchaeologypodcastnetwork.com.