Every time you see an apple spontaneously break away from a tree, it falls downward. You therefore claim that there is a law of physics: apples fall downward from trees. But how can you really know? After all, tomorrow you might see an apple that falls upward. How is science possible at all? Philosophers, as you might expect, have thought hard about this. Branden Fitelson explains how a better understanding of probability can help us decide when new evidence is actually confirming our beliefs.

Blog post with transcript: https://www.preposterousuniverse.com/podcast/2025/05/19/315-branden-fitelson-on-the-logic-and-use-of-probability/

Support Mindscape on Patreon [https://www.patreon.com/seanmcarroll].

Branden Fitelson received a Ph.D. in philosophy from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He is currently Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at Northeastern University. He is a co-founder of the Formal Epistemology Workshop, and winner of the 2020 Wolfram Innovator Award.

 * Web site [https://fitelson.org/]
 * Northeastern web page [https://cssh.northeastern.edu/faculty/branden-fitelson/]
 * PhilPapers profile [https://philpeople.org/profiles/branden-fitelson]
 * Google Scholar publications [https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=guuEvwUAAAAJ&hl=en]
 * Wikipedia [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branden_Fitelson]

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315 | Branden Fitelson on the Logic and Use of Probability

There are living creatures dwelling deep below the surface of the Earth, as deep as we are able to drill. These hearty microorganisms are related to more familiar life forms on land and under water, but the operate and survive in ways that are quite different from what we're familiar with. They live off of nutrients that have penetrated from the surface, or sometimes off of pure electrons. Karen Lloyd is a scientist who has traveled around the world studying these organisms, as she explains in her new book Intraterrestrials: Discovering the Strangest Life on Earth [https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691236117/intraterrestrials].

Blog post with transcript: https://www.preposterousuniverse.com/podcast/2025/05/12/314-karen-lloyd-on-the-deep-underground-biosphere/

Support Mindscape on Patreon [https://www.patreon.com/seanmcarroll].

Karen Lloyd received a Ph.D. in marine sciences from the University of North Carolina. She is currently the Wrigley Chair in Environmental Studies and Professor of Earth Sciences at the University of Southern California. Among her awards are a Sloan Fellowship, a Simons Early Career Investigator, and a NASA Early Career Fellowship.

 * Lab web site [https://lloydlab.utk.edu/]
 * USC web page [https://dornsife.usc.edu/profile/karen-lloyd/]
 * Google Scholar publications [https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=cwNS_2EAAAAJ&hl=en]
 * Bluesky [https://bsky.app/profile/karenlloyd.bsky.social]

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314 | Karen Lloyd on the Deep Underground Biosphere

Medical science is advancing at an astonishing rate. Today we talk with leading expert Eric Topol about two aspects of this story. First, the use of artificial intelligence in medicine, especially in diagnostics. This is an area that is a perfect match between an important question and the capabilities of machine learning, to the point where AI can out-perform human doctors. And second, our understanding of aging and what to do about it. Eric even gives some actionable advice on how to live more healthily into our golden years.

Blog post with transcript: https://www.preposterousuniverse.com/podcast/2025/05/05/episode-313-eric-topol-on-the-changing-face-of-medicine-and-aging/

Support Mindscape on Patreon [https://www.patreon.com/seanmcarroll].

Eric Topol received and M.D. from the University of Rochester. He is currently the Gary and Mary West Chair of Innovative Medicine in the Department of Translational Medicine at Scripps Research. He is also the Founder, Scripps Research Translational Institute, and Senior Consultant, Scripps Clinic, Division of Cardiovascular Diseases. Among his awards are the Hutchinson Medal from the University of Rochester and membership in the National Academy of Sciences. His books include Deep Medicine: How Artificial Intelligence Can Make Healthcare Human Again [https://bookshop.org/p/books/deep-medicine-how-artificial-intelligence-can-make-healthcare-human-again-eric-topol/12786538], and Super Agers: An Evidence-Based Approach to Longevity [https://bookshop.org/p/books/super-agers-an-evidence-based-approach-to-longevity-eric-topol/21872909].

 * Web site [https://drerictopol.com/]
 * Scripps web page [https://www.scripps.edu/faculty/topol/]
 * Google Scholar publications [https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=E2-uIQYAAAAJ&hl=en]
 * Wikipedia [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Topol]
 * Substack [https://substack.com/@erictopol]
 * Bluesky [https://bsky.app/profile/erictopol.bsky.social]



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313 | Eric Topol on the Changing Face of Medicine and Aging

Welcome to the May 2025 Ask Me Anything episode of Mindscape! These monthly excursions are funded by Patreon supporters [https://www.patreon.com/seanmcarroll] (who are also the ones asking the questions). We take questions asked by Patreons, whittle them down to a more manageable number -- based primarily on whether I have anything interesting to say about them, not whether the questions themselves are good -- and sometimes group them together if they are about a similar topic. Enjoy!

Blog post with AMA questions and transcript: https://www.preposterousuniverse.com/podcast/2025/04/28/ama-may-2025/

Support Mindscape on Patreon [https://www.patreon.com/seanmcarroll].

See Privacy Policy at https://art19.com/privacy and California Privacy Notice at https://art19.com/privacy#do-not-sell-my-info.

AMA | May 2025

The germ theory of disease is a crowning achievement of science, up there with modern physics, continental drift, and evolution via natural selection. (Even if there will always be cranky skeptics [https://www.youcanknowthings.com/germ-theory-2/].) But the road to widespread acceptance isn't always an easy one. Why did it take so long between Anton van Leeuwenhoek seeing "animalcules" in a microscope (1670s) to Louis Pasteur's work on pasteurization and vaccination (1860's)? Thomas Levenson is the author of a new book exploring this fascinating history: So Very Small: How Humans Discovered the Microcosmos, Defeated Germs--and May Still Lose the War Against Infectious Disease [https://www.amazon.com/Very-Small-Discovered-Microcosmos-Germs/dp/0593242734/].

Blog post with transcript: https://www.preposterousuniverse.com/podcast/2025/04/21/episode-312-thomas-levenson-on-the-mutual-history-of-humans-and-germs/

Support Mindscape on Patreon [https://www.patreon.com/seanmcarroll].

Thomas Levenson received a B.A. in East Asian Studies from Harvard University. He is currently Professor of Science Writing and director of the graduate program in science writing at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He is the author of numerous books and has written and produced a number of science documentaries for television.

 * Web site [https://thomaslevenson.com/]
 * MIT web page [https://sciwrite.mit.edu/person/thomas-levenson/]
 * Wikipedia [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Levenson]
 * Amazon author page [https://www.amazon.com/stores/Thomas-Levenson/author/B001HCU6CW?ccs_id=d724e4f4-782a-4c0a-ba29-d9af618833f1]
 * Bluesky [https://bsky.app/profile/tomlevenson.bsky.social]



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312 | Thomas Levenson on the Mutual History of Humans and Germs

Questions about consciousness range from the precise and empirical -- what neurons fire when I have some particular experience -- to the deeply profound -- does consciousness emerge from matter, or does matter emerge from consciousness? While it might be straightforward to think that consciousness arises from the collective behavior of atoms in the brain, Annaka Harris and others argue that consciousness could be the fundamental stuff from which matter arises. She talks with a variety of experts in her new audio series, Lights On: How Understanding Consciousness Helps Us Understand the Universe [https://annakaharris.com/lights-on/].

Blog post with show notes and transcript: https://www.preposterousuniverse.com/podcast/2025/04/14/311-annaka-harris-on-whether-consciousness-is-fundamental/

Support Mindscape on Patreon [https://www.patreon.com/seanmcarroll].

Annaka Harris received a BFA from New York University. She is the author of Consciousness: A Brief Guide to the Fundamental Mystery of the Mind. She is a co-founder of Project Reason.

 * Web site [https://annakaharris.com/]
 * Wikipedia [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annaka_Harris]
 * Amazon author page [https://www.amazon.com/stores/author/B01MZFQBQK?ccs_id=0682c453-e418-4915-8ec0-4c28a46ba281]

See Privacy Policy at https://art19.com/privacy and California Privacy Notice at https://art19.com/privacy#do-not-sell-my-info.

311 | Annaka Harris on Whether Consciousness is Fundamental

Welcome to the April 2025 Ask Me Anything episode of Mindscape! These monthly excursions are funded by Patreon supporters [https://www.patreon.com/seanmcarroll] (who are also the ones asking the questions). We take questions asked by Patreons, whittle them down to a more manageable number -- based primarily on whether I have anything interesting to say about them, not whether the questions themselves are good -- and sometimes group them together if they are about a similar topic. Enjoy!

Blog post with questions and transcript: https://www.preposterousuniverse.com/podcast/2025/04/07/ama-april-2025/

Support Mindscape on Patreon [https://www.patreon.com/seanmcarroll].

A couple of links relevant to the intro:

 * Tariff formula [https://www.snopes.com/news/2025/04/03/trump-tariff-formula/] (Snopes)
 * Tufts student nabbed by ICE [https://www.bostonherald.com/2025/04/04/tufts-university-graduate-student-arrested-by-ice-has-case-moved-to-vermont/] (plus video [https://apnews.com/article/tufts-student-detained-massachusetts-immigration-6c3978da98a8d0f39ab311e092ffd892])



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AMA | April 2025

Cosmologists were, let us be honest, pretty stunned in 1998 when observations revealed that the universe is accelerating [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe]. There was an obvious plausible explanation, the cosmological constant [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological_constant] proposed by Einstein, which is equivalent to a constant vacuum energy pervading space. But the cosmological constant was known to be enormously smaller than its "natural" value, and it seems fine-tuned for it to be so small but not yet zero. Once burned, twice shy, and since then we have been looking for evidence that the dark energy might not be strictly constant, even though that's even more fine-tuned. We talk to cosmologist Marc Kamionkowski about recent evidence that dark energy might be changing with time, and what this might have to do with the Hubble tension [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_Tension] and other cosmic anomalies.

Blog post with transcript: https://www.preposterousuniverse.com/podcast/2025/03/31/310-marc-kamionkowski-on-dark-energy-and-cosmic-anomalies/

Support Mindscape on Patreon [https://www.patreon.com/seanmcarroll].

Marc Kamionkowski received his Ph.D. in physics from the University of Chicago. He is currently the William R. Kenan Jr. Professor in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at Johns Hopkins University. Among his prizes are the Gruber Cosmology Prize, the Dannie Heineman Prize for Astrophysics, membership in the National Academy of Science, and a Guggenheim Fellowship.

 * Johns Hopkins web page [https://sites.krieger.jhu.edu/kamionkowski/]
 * Google Scholar publications [https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=xdxuN98AAAAJ&hl=en]
 * Wikipedia [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Kamionkowski]
 * Kamionkowski and Riess, "The Hubble Tension and Early Dark Energy" [https://arxiv.org/abs/2211.04492]
 * Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Energy_Spectroscopic_Instrument] paper [https://arxiv.org/abs/2503.14738] and followup [https://arxiv.org/abs/2503.14743]
 * Dark Energy Survey [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Energy_Survey] paper [https://arxiv.org/abs/2503.06712]



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310 | Marc Kamionkowski on Dark Energy and Cosmic Anomalies

Consciousness is easier to possess than to define. One thing we can do is to look into the brain and see what lights up when conscious awareness is taking place. A complete understanding of this would be known as the "neural correlates of consciousness." Once we have that, we could hopefully make progress on developing a theoretical picture of what consciousness is and why it happens. Today's guest, Christof Koch, is a leader in the search for neural correlates and an advocate of a particular approach to consciousness, Integrated Information Theory [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_information_theory].

Blog post with transcript: https://www.preposterousuniverse.com/podcast/2025/03/24/309-christof-koch-on-consciousness-and-integrated-information/

Support Mindscape on Patreon [https://www.patreon.com/seanmcarroll].

Christof Koch was awarded a Ph.D. from the Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics. He is currently a Meritorious Investigator at the Allen Institute for Brain Science, where he was formerly president and chief scientist, and Chief Scientist at the Tiny Blue Dot Foundation [https://www.tinybluedotfoundation.org/]. He is the author of several books, most recently Then I Am Myself the World - What Consciousness Is and How to Expand It [https://www.hachettebookgroup.com/titles/christof-koch/then-i-am-myself-the-world/9781541602816/?lens=basic-books].

 * Web site [https://christofkoch.com/]
 * Allen Center web page [https://alleninstitute.org/person/christof-koch/]
 * Google Scholar publications [https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=JYt9T_sAAAAJ&hl=en]
 * Amazon author page [https://www.amazon.com/stores/Christof-Koch/author/B001IZVC1C?ref=ap_rdr&isDramIntegrated=true&shoppingPortalEnabled=true&ccs_id=573766f5-d54a-433a-98ea-075c00efa319]
 * Wikipedia [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christof_Koch]

See Privacy Policy at https://art19.com/privacy and California Privacy Notice at https://art19.com/privacy#do-not-sell-my-info.

309 | Christof Koch on Consciousness and Integrated Information

We often study cognition in other species, in part to learn about modes of thinking that are different from our own. Today's guest, psychologist/philosopher Alison Gopnik, argues that we needn't look that far: human children aren't simply undeveloped adults, they have a way of thinking that is importantly distinct from that of grownups. Children are explorers with ever-expanding neural connections; adults are exploiters who (they think) know how the world works. These studies have important implications for the training and use of artificial intelligence.

Blog post with transcript: https://www.preposterousuniverse.com/podcast/2025/03/17/308-alison-gopnik-on-children-ai-and-modes-of-thinking/

Support Mindscape on Patreon [https://www.patreon.com/seanmcarroll].

Alison Gopnik received her D.Phil in experimental psychology from Oxford University. She is currently a professor of psychology and affiliate professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. Among her awards are the Association for Psychological Science Lifetime Achievement Award, the Rumelhart Prize for Theoretical Foundations of Cognitive Science, and a Guggenheim Fellowship. She is a past President of the Association for Psychological Science. She is the author of The Scientist in the Crib, The Philosophical Baby, and The Gardener and the Carpenter, among other works.

 * Web site [http://alisongopnik.com/]
 * Lab web site [https://www.gopniklab.berkeley.edu/]
 * Berkeley web page [https://psychology.berkeley.edu/people/alison-gopnik]
 * Google Scholar publications [https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=2tt6ZJ0AAAAJ&hl=en]
 * Amazon author page [https://www.amazon.com/stores/author/B001IXROIO]
 * Wikipedia [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alison_Gopnik]



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308 | Alison Gopnik on Children, AI, and Modes of Thinking

Ever wanted to know how music affects your brain, what quantum mechanics really is, or how black holes work? Do you wonder why you get emotional each time you see a certain movie, or how on earth video games are designed? Then you’ve come to the right place. Each week, Sean Carroll will host conversations with some of the most interesting thinkers in the world. From neuroscientists and engineers to authors and television producers, Sean and his guests talk about the biggest ideas in science, philosophy, culture and much more.

Sean Carroll

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